sp - exam two

What is natural selection?

The process by which inherited traits that improve survival or reproduction become more common across generations.

How does evolutionary psychology explain human behavior?

It examines how psychological tendencies may have developed through evolution because they helped our ancestors survive or reproduce.

What are norms?

Shared rules or expectations about how people in a group should behave.

What is norm formation?

The process through which people develop shared expectations about appropriate behavior.

What is the autokinetic effect?

A visual illusion in which a stationary point of light in a dark room appears to move.

What does the autokinetic effect have to do with norm formation?

Sherif found that when people estimated how much a stationary light moved, their answers became more similar over time. This showed how people develop shared norms when a situation is unclear.

What is compliance?

Changing behavior in response to a direct request, without necessarily agreeing with it internally.

What is obedience?

Following a direct command from someone perceived as an authority figure.

What is acceptance?

Genuinely believing that a request, belief, or behavior is correct, rather than merely going along with it publicly.

What is conformity?

Changing your behavior or beliefs to match those of a group.

What is persuasion?

The process of changing someone’s attitudes or beliefs through communication.

What is the central route to persuasion?

Carefully considering the quality of arguments and evidence before changing an attitude. For example, a student researches evidence before deciding which environmental policy to support.

What is the peripheral route to persuasion?

Being influenced by cues such as attractiveness, popularity, or a speaker’s reputation rather than carefully analyzing the arguments. For example, a student buys a product because a favorite celebrity promotes it.

What is the recency effect?

The tendency for information presented most recently to have a stronger influence on a judgment, especially when the information is considered soon after it is presented.

What is the primacy effect?

The tendency for information presented first to have a stronger influence on a judgment than information presented later.

What is a group?

Two or more people who interact and influence one another, often sharing goals or a sense of belonging.

What is normative social influence?

Changing behavior to gain approval or avoid rejection from others. For example, a student laughs at a joke because everyone else is laughing, even though they do not find it funny.

What is informational social influence?

Looking to others for guidance because you believe they know what is correct. For example, a student follows everyone toward an exit because they assume the others know where to go during an unfamiliar emergency drill.

What is the mere presence of others?

The idea that simply having other people nearby can affect a person's performance or behavior, even when those people do not directly interact with them.

What is the social facilitation effect?

The tendency for the presence of others to improve performance on easy or well-practiced tasks but sometimes impair performance on difficult or unfamiliar tasks.

What is evaluation apprehension?

Concern about being judged or evaluated by other people, which can affect performance.

What is deindividuation?

A state in which people may feel less personally identifiable or accountable in a group, potentially making them less likely to follow their usual standards of behavior.

What is groupthink?

A group decision-making problem in which the desire for agreement discourages criticism and consideration of alternatives.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe an outcome was predictable after it has already happened. For example, after a team loses, a fan insists they knew the team would lose all along.

What is social loafing?

Putting in less effort when working as part of a group than when working individually. For example, a student contributes very little to a group project because they expect other members to do the work.

What is two-sided persuasive communication?

A message that presents both sides of an argument, including counterarguments. It can be more persuasive to an audience that disagrees or is skeptical because it acknowledges opposing views.

What is one-sided persuasive communication?

A message that supports one position without presenting opposing arguments. It may work well with an audience that already agrees or is unlikely to question the message.

What are Robert Cialdini’s six principles of persuasion?

Reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity.

How does reciprocity influence persuasion?

People feel obligated to return favors. For example, someone is more willing to help a person who helped them previously.

How does commitment and consistency influence persuasion?

People tend to act in ways that match their previous commitments. For example, someone who publicly promises to recycle may be more likely to continue recycling.

How does social proof influence persuasion?

People look at what others are doing to decide how to behave. For example, a student tries a popular restaurant because many classmates recommend it.

How does authority influence persuasion?

People are more likely to be persuaded by someone they see as knowledgeable or authoritative. For example, a patient takes a health recommendation seriously because it comes from a qualified doctor.

How does liking influence persuasion?

People are often more easily persuaded by people they like or relate to. For example, a student supports a fundraiser because it is organized by a close friend.

How does scarcity influence persuasion?

People may value something more when it seems limited or difficult to obtain. For example, a student feels more urgency to buy a ticket when told only a few remain.

What did Norman Triplett’s study demonstrate?

Triplett found that boys reeling fishing rods often performed better when competing alongside others than when racing against the clock alone. His laboratory task also suggested that the presence of another person could improve performance on a simple, familiar task. This is an early example of social facilitation.

What did Solomon Asch’s 1955 conformity study demonstrate?

Participants sometimes gave an obviously incorrect answer about line lengths because other group members had given that answer first. The study demonstrated how group pressure can lead people to conform even when the correct answer is clear.

What did Muzafer Sherif’s 1935 and 1937 studies demonstrate?

Using the autokinetic effect, Sherif showed that people’s estimates tended to converge when they made judgments together in an ambiguous situation. This demonstrated how group norms form through informational social influence.

What did Stanley Milgram’s obedience research demonstrate?

Milgram found that many participants continued following an experimenter's instructions to administer what they believed were increasingly strong electric shocks to another person, despite signs of distress. The research demonstrated the powerful influence of perceived authority on obedience.

What did David Buss’s 1995 research examine?

Buss’s evolutionary psychology research examined sex differences and similarities in mate preferences across cultures, including preferences related to resources, attractiveness, and reproductive considerations. Findings are interpreted in terms of evolutionary explanations, while recognizing that culture and individual differences also matter.

What did Latané and colleagues’ 1979 research demonstrate?

Research on social loafing showed that people may exert less effort when working collectively than when their individual contributions can be identified. For example, a person may shout less loudly as part of a group than when shouting alone.