Latin 6.4 & 6.7: 4. General Grammar (Quick Reference)

Nominative: 2 uses

Subject of the verb, or predicate nominative after sum (Caesar est imperātor = Caesar is a commander).

Genitive of possession

“of ___ / ___’s.” Ex: villa amīcī = the friend’s house.

Genitive of description

Genitive noun + adjective describing a quality. Ex: fēmina magnae sapientiae = a woman of great wisdom.

Dative indirect object

“to ___” with verbs of giving, showing, telling. Ex: dīcit mīlitibus = he speaks to the soldiers.

Dative of reference

Person affected or whose view counts. “for ___ / in the eyes of ___.”

Dative of purpose / double dative

Abstract noun in the dative showing purpose (“as a ___”), often paired with a dative of reference (“as a ___ for ___”).

Dative of possession

Dative + form of sum = “X has Y.” Ex: est mihi liber = I have a book.

Accusative of duration of time

Time word in the accusative, no preposition = “for ___.” Ex: multōs annōs = for many years.

Accusative of place to which

City, town, small island, domus, rūs with NO preposition = “to ___.” Ex: Rōmam = to Rome.

Ablative of personal agent

ā / ab + person with a passive verb = “by ___.” Ex: ab eō = by him.

Ablative of manner

Abstract noun, often with cum = “with ___.” Ex: cum magnā cūrā = with great care.

Ablative of time when / within

Time word in the ablative = “at / in / within ___.” Ex: eōdem tempore = at the same time.

Ablative of place where / from

in, sub (where) or ab, ex, dē (from) + ablative = “in / on / from ___.”

Ablative of separation

With verbs of freeing, lacking, removing = “from ___.” Ex: līberātus metū = freed from fear.

Ablative of respect (specification)

Says in what respect something is true = “in ___.” Ex: praestant virtūte = they excel in bravery.

Ablative of description

Ablative noun + adjective describing a quality = “with / of ___.” Ex: vir animō bonō.

Ablative of comparison

Ablative after a comparative = “than ___.” Ex: clārior lūce = brighter than light.

Ablative absolute

Noun + participle both in the ablative, grammatically separate from the sentence. Translate “with ___ having been ___ed / after / since / when.” Ex: urbe captā = with the city captured.

Ablative with special verbs

ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor take the ablative but translate as a direct object. Ex: gladiō ūtitur = he uses a sword.

Locative case

“at / in” a city, town, small island, domus, rūs. 1st/2nd sing. looks like genitive (Rōmae, domī); plural and 3rd decl. look like ablative (Athēnīs).

Vocative case

Direct address. Same as nominative except 2nd decl. -us → -e (Mārce) and -ius → -ī (fīlī).

Indicative tense meanings (present system)

Present: verbs / is verbing. Imperfect: was verbing / used to verb. Future: will verb.

Indicative tense meanings (perfect system)

Perfect: verbed / has verbed. Pluperfect: had verbed. Future perfect: will have verbed.

Perfect passive system

4th principal part (PPP) + form of sum. Ex: amātus est = he was / has been loved; amātus erat = had been loved.

Imperfect subjunctive: how to form

Present active infinitive + personal endings. Ex: amāre-m, vidēre-t, esse-nt.

Pluperfect subjunctive: how to form

Perfect active infinitive + personal endings. Ex: amāvisse-m, fuisse-t.

Perfect subjunctive: how to form

Perfect stem + -eri- + endings. Ex: amāverim, amāverit.

Hortatory / jussive subjunctive

Present subjunctive in a main clause = “let us ___ / let him ___.” Ex: eāmus = let us go.

Deliberative / optative subjunctive

Main-clause subjunctive asking “should I ___?” (deliberative) or wishing “may ___ / if only ___” (optative, often utinam).

Simple (fact) conditional

sī + indicative in both halves. Translate normally: “If X happens, Y happens.”

Future less vivid conditional

Present subjunctive in both halves = “If ___ should ___, ___ would ___.”

Present contrary-to-fact conditional

Imperfect subjunctive in both halves = “If ___ were ___, ___ would ___.”

Past contrary-to-fact conditional

Pluperfect subjunctive in both halves = “If ___ had ___, ___ would have ___.”

Present active participle (PrAP)

Stem + -ns, -ntis (3rd decl.) = “___ing.” Happens at the same time as the main verb. Ex: pugnantem = fighting.

Perfect passive participle (PPP)

4th principal part (-tus, -a, -um) = “having been ___ed.” Happens before the main verb. Ex: captus = having been captured.

Future active participle (FAP)

4th principal part stem + -ūrus, -a, -um = “about to ___ / going to ___.” Ex: ventūrus = about to come.

Perfect participle of a deponent

Looks passive but is active = “having ___ed.” Ex: profectus = having set out.

Gerund

Neuter verbal noun: -ndī, -ndō, -ndum (no nominative). “of / by / for ___ing.” Ex: ars bellandī = the art of waging war.

Gerundive

Verbal adjective -ndus, -a, -um agreeing with a noun. Ex: ad eās rēs cōnficiendās = for completing these things.

Passive periphrastic

Gerundive + form of sum = “must be ___ed,” with a dative of agent for the doer. Ex: Carthāgō dēlenda est = Carthage must be destroyed.

Supine

-um after a verb of motion = purpose (vēnērunt spectātum = came to watch). -ū after an adjective = “to ___” (horribile vīsū = horrible to see).

ut + indicative

Means “as, like, when” (NOT “so that”). Only ut + subjunctive means “so that / that / to.”

Linking relative

quī, quae, quod at the start of a sentence = translate as “this / that / these.”

Pronoun agreement rule

A pronoun gets gender and number from its antecedent, but its case from its job in its own clause.

Demonstratives: hic, ille, is, īdem

hic = this; ille = that; is = he/she/it, that; īdem = the same.

Intensive vs. reflexive

ipse, ipsa, ipsum = himself/herself for emphasis (“the very ___”). suī, sibi, sē = himself/themselves, referring back to the subject.

Comparative adjectives & adverbs

Adj: stem + -ior (m/f), -ius (n). Adv: stem + -ius. Meaning: “more ___ / ___er / rather ___.”

Superlative adjectives & adverbs

Adj: -issimus, -errimus, -illimus. Adv: same stem + -ē. Meaning: “most ___ / ___est / very ___.”

Positive adverbs

1st/2nd decl. stem + -ē (lātē = widely). 3rd decl. stem + -iter (fortiter = bravely).

Substantive adjectives

Adjective with no noun. Masc. plural = people (multī = many people). Neut. plural = things (omnia = all things).

Questions: -ne, nōnne, num

-ne on the first word = simple yes/no question. nōnne expects “yes.” num expects “no.”

Alliteration

Repeating the same starting consonant sound in nearby words.

Apostrophe

Directly addressing someone absent or an idea. Ex: Ō patria!

Chiasmus

ABBA word order (e.g., noun A, adj B, adj B, noun A).

Synchysis (interlocking order)

ABAB word order (adj A, adj B, noun A, noun B).

Enjambment

A thought runs past the end of a line of poetry into the next line.

Hyperbole

Extreme exaggeration for effect.

Simile

A comparison using velut, quālis, ut, or similis (“like / as”).

Metonymy / synecdoche

Using a related thing or a part for the whole. Ex: ferrum (iron) = sword; puppis (stern) = ship.

Tricolon

A list of three parallel words or phrases, often growing in length. Ex: vēnī, vīdī, vīcī.