History Test 3 updated flashcards

Adams-Onís Treaty

An 1819 agreement between the United States and Spain, ratified in 1821. Spain ceded Florida, and the two countries established a boundary between U.S. territory and Spanish territory extending to the Pacific. The United States relinquished its claim to Texas and assumed up to $5 million in American claims against Spain.

Indian Removal Act

An 1830 law signed by Andrew Jackson authorizing the president to negotiate exchanges of Indigenous lands east of the Mississippi River for lands farther west. Although framed as negotiated exchange, its implementation involved coercion, fraudulent treaties, military force, and deadly removals.

The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad

A railroad chartered in 1827 to connect Baltimore with western trade, particularly the Ohio River Valley. It helped Baltimore compete with canal routes and encouraged faster transportation, commercial growth, and competition between regions and cities.

Battle of New Orleans

A major American victory over British forces on January 8, 1815, led by Andrew Jackson. It occurred after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but before news of peace arrived and before ratification. The victory strengthened American nationalism and made Jackson a national hero.

Lowell Mills

Textile factories developed in Lowell, Massachusetts, beginning in the 1820s. They initially employed many young women from New England farms, who earned wages and lived in company-supervised boardinghouses. Long hours, strict rules, wage cuts, and faster work created labor conflict.

Book of Mormon

A religious text first published by Joseph Smith in 1830. Latter-day Saints regard it as scripture alongside the Bible and as an account of ancient peoples in the Americas. Its publication helped establish a new religious movement that challenged established religious authority.

Louisiana Purchase

The United States’ purchase of France’s Louisiana Territory in 1803 for $15 million. It approximately doubled the country’s size, secured New Orleans and Mississippi River access, and intensified questions about Indigenous sovereignty, slavery, and federal constitutional power.

Camp Meetings

Large outdoor religious gatherings, especially associated with the Second Great Awakening. People gathered for preaching, singing, prayer, and emotional conversion experiences, helping religious movements reach frontier communities.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

A federally sponsored expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark from 1804 to 1806. It explored the Louisiana Purchase and lands farther west, gathered scientific and geographic information, and pursued diplomatic and commercial relationships with Native nations. Sacagawea and many Indigenous communities assisted its work.

Chesapeake Campaign/Burning of Washington

A British military campaign in the Chesapeake region during the War of 1812. After defeating American forces at Bladensburg in August 1814, British troops burned major public buildings in Washington, including the Capitol and the president’s residence. The attack humiliated the government and exposed weak defenses.

Missouri Compromise

An 1820 congressional settlement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, preserving equal numbers of slave and free states in the Senate. It also prohibited slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of 36°30′ latitude, except Missouri.

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal

A canal begun in 1828 along the Potomac River to connect Washington, D.C., with western commerce. It eventually reached Cumberland, Maryland, in 1850 but never reached the Ohio River. Railroad competition limited its importance as a western transportation route.

Monroe Doctrine

An 1823 foreign-policy statement warning European powers against new colonization or intervention in the Americas. The United States would generally avoid European internal affairs and would not interfere with existing European colonies. Its immediate enforcement depended heavily on circumstances, including British naval power.

National Completeness

A course-dependent term for the early nineteenth-century belief that the United States was approaching adequate or settled territorial boundaries and should consolidate its existing domain. Often connected to the Adams-Onís Treaty and the supposed barrier of the Great Plains; it differs from the later belief in continental Manifest Destiny.

The Common Man

A political ideal especially associated with Jacksonian democracy that celebrated ordinary white men rather than inherited elites. Expanded white male voting and popular campaigning supported this ideal, but women, most Black Americans, and Native Americans remained excluded from equal political power.

The Panic of 1819

A major national economic crisis caused by a combination of easy credit, land speculation, falling agricultural prices, and tightening bank credit. Its effects included bank and business failures, unemployment, foreclosures, and resentment toward banks and wealthy creditors.

The Era of Good Feelings

A label for the period associated with James Monroe’s presidency, 1817–1825, when Federalist decline left the Democratic-Republicans dominant nationally. The phrase hides serious conflicts over slavery, economic policy, regional interests, and the Panic of 1819.

The Second Great Awakening

A wave of Protestant religious revivals beginning in the late eighteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth century. It emphasized conversion, individual moral responsibility, and the possibility of spiritual improvement, helping inspire reform movements such as temperance and abolition.

The Erie Canal

A New York canal completed in 1825 that connected the Hudson River at Albany with Lake Erie at Buffalo. It lowered transportation costs, linked western farmers to eastern markets, and helped make New York City the nation’s leading commercial center.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

The 1848 treaty ending the Mexican-American War. Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as Texas’s boundary and ceded a vast region including California and much of the present-day Southwest. The United States paid $15 million and assumed certain claims against Mexico. The treaty intensified disputes over slavery, citizenship, and land rights.

Treaty of Tripoli

A peace and friendship treaty signed in 1796 and ratified by the United States in 1797 to protect American shipping from conflict with Tripoli. Article 11 of the English-language version declared that the U.S. government was not founded on the Christian religion, presenting the agreement as independent of religious hostility.

The Five Civilized Tribes

A historical label used by white Americans for the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee/Creek, and Seminole nations. The label reflected Euro-American judgments about practices such as settled agriculture, written government, Christianity, and, among some citizens, slaveholding. These nations maintained distinct cultures and governments despite this imposed category.

The University of Virginia

A public university founded in 1819 under Thomas Jefferson’s leadership; it opened to students in 1825. It emphasized a broad curriculum and education outside direct church control, reflecting Jefferson’s connection between knowledge and republican self-government. Its construction and operation also relied on enslaved labor.

Whitman mission

A Protestant mission established in 1836 by Marcus and Narcissa Whitman among the Cayuse near present-day Walla Walla, Washington. Cultural conflict, settler encroachment, and a devastating measles epidemic contributed to the 1847 killing of the Whitmans and others, followed by the Cayuse War.

G.T.T.

“Gone to Texas,” a phrase associated with Americans moving to Texas, sometimes to seek land and opportunity or escape debts. Migration helped increase the Anglo-American population in Mexican Texas and contributed to tensions over slavery, political authority, and eventual independence.

The Great American Desert

A misleading nineteenth-century description of much of the Great Plains, associated with explorers such as Stephen H. Long. It suggested that the region was poorly suited to familiar forms of farming and could serve as a western limit to settlement. The region was already home to diverse Indigenous societies.

Hartford Convention

A meeting of New England Federalists from December 1814 to January 1815 protesting the War of 1812 and discussing constitutional amendments to limit southern and Democratic-Republican power. Its proposals appeared disloyal amid news of peace and victory at New Orleans, contributing to the Federalist Party’s collapse.

Impressment

The British practice of forcing sailors into Royal Navy service. British searches of American ships seized alleged British deserters and also American citizens, violating American claims about neutral rights, citizenship, and national sovereignty.

Mattaponi and Pamunkey

Two distinct Indigenous peoples of Virginia’s Tidewater region with longstanding connections to the Powhatan world. Before the Indian Removal Act, they maintained reservation communities along the Mattaponi and Pamunkey rivers in present-day King William County, Virginia.

President #1, 1789–1797: ______

George Washington.

President #2, 1797–1801: ______

John Adams.

President #3, 1801–1809: ______

Thomas Jefferson.

President #4, 1809–1817: ______

James Madison.

President #5, 1817–1825: ______

James Monroe.

President #6, 1825–1829: ______

John Quincy Adams.

President #7, 1829–1837: ______

Andrew Jackson.

President #8, 1837–1841: ______

Martin Van Buren.

President #9, March–April 1841: ______

William Henry Harrison.

President #10, 1841–1845: ______

John Tyler.

What is the chronological order of presidents from Washington through Tyler?

George Washington → John Adams → Thomas Jefferson → James Madison → James Monroe → John Quincy Adams → Andrew Jackson → Martin Van Buren → William Henry Harrison → John Tyler.

Monroe Doctrine vs. National Completeness

The Monroe Doctrine addressed foreign interference: European powers should not establish new colonies or intervene in independent American nations. National Completeness concerned the perceived territorial shape and limits of the United States itself. They could support consolidation and security without requiring immediate U.S. expansion across the continent.

How did the Adams-Onís Treaty relate to National Completeness?

By acquiring Florida and defining the boundary with Spanish territory, the treaty helped settle major territorial disputes and encouraged a sense that the nation had reached satisfactory boundaries. This outlook differed from the later demand for Texas, California, and continental expansion.

Reason for the War of 1812: impressment

Britain forcibly removed sailors from American ships for Royal Navy service, including American citizens. Americans viewed impressment as an attack on individual freedom, citizenship, and national independence.

Reason for the War of 1812: interference with trade

British restrictions on neutral commerce and seizures of American ships disrupted U.S. trade during the Napoleonic Wars. Economic pressure and repeated violations of neutral rights helped convince Americans that diplomacy and trade restrictions had failed.

Reason for the War of 1812: frontier conflict and British-Indigenous relations

Britain maintained commercial and military relationships with Native nations resisting American expansion. Many Americans blamed Britain for supporting frontier resistance and believed war would weaken that resistance and secure western settlements.

Reason for the War of 1812: national honor and expansion

War Hawks argued that the United States had to defend its independence and reputation against British humiliation. Some also expected an invasion of Canada to provide territory or bargaining leverage, although historians debate expansion’s relative importance.

What are two strong reasons to explain why the United States declared war in 1812?

First, impressment violated American sailors’ rights and U.S. sovereignty. Second, British trade restrictions and ship seizures damaged neutral commerce. A further cause was American anger at British support for Indigenous resistance along the frontier.

What happened during the Burning of Washington, and what was one effect?

In August 1814, British troops defeated American forces at Bladensburg, entered Washington, and burned major government buildings. One effect was national humiliation and criticism of military preparedness; another was intensified determination to defend the country.

How did the Chesapeake Campaign connect to American nationalism?

Washington’s destruction exposed American vulnerability, while the successful defense of Baltimore in September 1814 offered a contrasting symbol of resistance. The defense of Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key’s poem that became “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

What happened at the Hartford Convention, and what was one effect?

New England Federalists met in 1814–1815 to protest the war and propose constitutional changes. Although the convention did not formally endorse secession, its association with sectional disloyalty damaged the Federalists after news of peace and the New Orleans victory.

How did the War of 1812 contribute to the Panic of 1819 through manufacturing?

Wartime trade disruption encouraged American manufacturing by limiting British competition. After the war, renewed imports of cheaper British manufactured goods hurt some American producers, contributing to business distress in the postwar economy.

How did the War of 1812 contribute to the Panic of 1819 through land and credit?

After the war, western migration, federal land sales, and easy bank lending encouraged speculative land purchases. War-related federal debts also encouraged land sales. When agricultural prices fell and banks tightened credit, borrowers could not repay loans and land values collapsed.

Why should the Panic of 1819 not be explained as only a result of the War of 1812?

It also reflected wider Atlantic economic changes after the Napoleonic Wars. Recovering European agriculture reduced demand for American crops, falling commodity prices weakened borrowers, and American banking practices intensified the crisis.

What were two economic effects of the Panic of 1819?

First, farmers and land speculators lost property through foreclosure when they could not repay debts. Second, bank and business failures increased unemployment and poverty, especially in communities tied to commercial markets.

What were two social or political effects of the Panic of 1819?

First, resentment grew toward banks, creditors, and the Second Bank of the United States. Second, debtors sought relief and questioned whether economic institutions favored wealthy elites over ordinary citizens.

How did new transportation and manufacturing technologies change the economy?

Canals, railroads, and factories connected distant markets and expanded commercial production. They also made communities more dependent on prices, employers, lenders, and economic decisions beyond local control.

How did the Lowell Mills create tensions between workers and owners?

Owners controlled wages, hours, production speed, and boardinghouse rules. Workers faced long days and increasing pressure, while owners sought higher profits. Wage reductions and stricter conditions encouraged protests and strikes.

How did the Lowell Mills create gender and rural-urban tensions?

Young women leaving farms for factory work gained wages and some independence, challenging expectations that women belonged primarily in households. At the same time, company supervision and harsh working conditions limited that independence and raised concerns about industrial city life.

How did the Erie Canal create regional divisions?

The canal strengthened commercial connections between western farmers and northeastern merchants, especially New York City. It benefited communities along its route while placing other towns and competing transportation routes at a disadvantage.

How did the Erie Canal contribute to social tensions?

Canal construction and expanding commercial towns increased demand for wage labor and attracted immigrants. Competition over jobs, dangerous working conditions, and religious or ethnic prejudice produced tensions between workers, employers, and established residents.

How did the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad create competition?

Baltimore investors promoted the railroad to capture western trade that might otherwise flow through New York’s Erie Canal or other routes. Competition over routes, investment, and government support created winners and losers among cities and regions.

What are two ways infrastructure and technology created new divisions?

First, factories such as the Lowell Mills sharpened class and gender tensions through wage labor, supervision, and unequal control over profits. Second, canals and railroads redirected trade, enriching connected cities and regions while disadvantaging places bypassed by the new networks.

How did the Missouri Compromise relate to westward expansion?

Expansion into the Louisiana Purchase raised the question of whether new territories and states would permit slavery. The compromise tried to regulate slavery’s expansion while preserving a balance between slave and free states.

How did the Missouri Compromise expose conflicts over American society and citizenship?

It showed that national expansion threatened to increase slaveholders’ power and extend the denial of freedom to enslaved people. Missouri’s proposed restrictions on free Black migration also raised a separate dispute about whether Black Americans could claim the rights of citizens across state lines.

Why was the Missouri Compromise a temporary solution?

It balanced immediate political demands without resolving slavery’s morality, enslaved people’s rights, or Congress’s authority over slavery in future territories. Further expansion repeatedly reopened these disputes.

How did the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo relate to westward expansion?

It transferred a vast northern Mexican territory to the United States after the Mexican-American War, extending U.S. control to California and much of the Southwest. The acquisition brought existing Mexican and Indigenous communities under expanding American power.

What citizenship concerns followed the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo?

The treaty provided protections for Mexican residents and a path to U.S. citizenship for those remaining in the transferred territory. In practice, discrimination, contested land claims, and unequal political power undermined those protections.

How did the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo intensify the slavery controversy?

The new territory forced Americans to debate whether slavery could expand into lands where Mexico had abolished it. Disputes over the status of the Mexican Cession intensified sectional conflict and contributed to the Compromise of 1850.

How were the Missouri Compromise and Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo connected?

Both linked territorial expansion to disputes over slavery and national membership. The Missouri Compromise tried to manage slavery in the Louisiana Purchase, while the treaty’s territorial gains reopened the issue and raised additional questions about Mexican residents’ citizenship and property.

Why did some Protestant Americans see Catholics as political threats?

Anti-Catholic nativists claimed that loyalty to the pope made Catholics incapable of independent republican citizenship. They also feared that growing Catholic immigrant communities would vote together and gain political influence. These were prejudiced accusations, not proof that Catholics opposed republican government.

Why did some Americans see Catholics as social threats?

Nativists associated Catholic immigration with competition for jobs, cultural change, and religious institutions outside Protestant control. Convents, parochial education, and Catholic worship became targets of suspicion and sensational misinformation.

What was one consequence of anti-Catholic prejudice?

Catholics faced discrimination, political exclusion, and mob violence. One example was the destruction of the Ursuline convent in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1834.

Why did some Americans see Mormons as political threats?

Latter-day Saints often settled in concentrated communities and sometimes voted together, leading neighbors to fear that they would dominate local elections. Their strong religious leadership also prompted accusations that church authority threatened independent citizenship.

Why did some Americans see Mormons as social threats?

Their new scripture, prophetic leadership, close-knit communities, and religious claims challenged established Christianity. Economic competition and local disputes worsened hostility. Plural marriage became an additional major controversy later; it should not be used as the sole explanation for persecution in the 1830s.

What was one consequence of anti-Mormon hostility?

Mormons experienced mob attacks, expulsion, and loss of property. In 1838, Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs ordered that Mormons be treated as enemies and “exterminated or driven from the State,” contributing to their forced departure.

What did anti-Catholic and anti-Mormon hostility have in common?

Both portrayed a religious minority as obeying an outside or supposedly authoritarian leader rather than acting as independent citizens. These accusations turned religious difference into a claimed political danger and helped justify exclusion and violence.

What economic developments around 1830 increased pressure to seize Indigenous lands?

The expansion of cotton cultivation and slave-based plantation agriculture increased demand for fertile southeastern land. Land speculation and, in Georgia, the discovery of gold in Cherokee country added further incentives for dispossession.

What financial advantages did states and white settlers expect from acquiring Indigenous lands?

They expected profits from land distribution and speculation, more taxable farms and property, access to valuable resources, and expanded commercial agriculture. These benefits depended on dispossessing Indigenous landholders.

What political advantages did states expect from taking Indigenous lands?

States sought to extend their courts and laws over territory within their claimed boundaries, eliminate competing Indigenous sovereignty, attract white settlers, and reward voters seeking land. Population growth could also strengthen a state’s political influence.

Why did Andrew Jackson’s presidency matter for removal around 1830?

Jackson’s election gave removal advocates a powerful federal ally. The Indian Removal Act provided a legal and administrative mechanism for land exchanges, while his administration’s policies favored state expansion over Indigenous treaty rights.

Which nations made up the Five Civilized Tribes?

Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee/Creek, and Seminole.

Where did the Cherokee live before the Indian Removal Act?

Their remaining homelands were centered in northern Georgia and adjoining parts of Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama.

Where did the Chickasaw live before the Indian Removal Act?

Their homelands were centered in northern Mississippi, with connections to adjoining western Tennessee and Alabama.

Where did the Choctaw live before the Indian Removal Act?

Their homelands were primarily in central and southern Mississippi and parts of western Alabama.

Where did the Muscogee/Creek live before the Indian Removal Act?

Their homelands were centered in Alabama and Georgia, although earlier treaties and warfare had already greatly reduced their territory.

Where did the Seminole live before the Indian Removal Act?

Primarily in Florida, where their communities included Native people from different backgrounds and people of African descent associated with Seminole society.

Where did the Mattaponi and Pamunkey live before the Indian Removal Act?

On longstanding reservation lands along the Mattaponi and Pamunkey rivers in Tidewater Virginia, especially present-day King William County.

Why is “Five Civilized Tribes” a problematic label?

It ranks Indigenous nations according to white Americans’ cultural standards and implies that other Native peoples were uncivilized. The five nations were distinct societies, and their adoption of selected Euro-American practices did not erase their sovereignty or protect them from dispossession.

How were the Five Civilized Tribes affected by removal policy?

The federal government used coerced treaties, political pressure, and military force to remove most members of these nations to Indian Territory, largely in present-day Oklahoma. Removal caused deaths, property loss, community disruption, and lasting trauma.

Were all members of the Five Civilized Tribes removed?

No. Some people remained, avoided removal, negotiated exemptions, or resisted militarily. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and Seminole communities in Florida demonstrate that removal was extensive but not complete.

What was the Trail of Tears?

A term most closely associated with the forced removal of the Cherokee in 1838–1839, during which thousands died. It is also sometimes used more broadly for the suffering caused by southeastern Indigenous removals.

How were the Mattaponi and Pamunkey affected differently from the Five Civilized Tribes?

They retained their Virginia reservation communities rather than undergoing a comparable federally organized mass removal west. However, they still faced white efforts to acquire their lands and continuing restrictions on their autonomy.

Why did the Mattaponi and Pamunkey have different removal outcomes?

Their small, longstanding reservations and treaty relationships were embedded in Virginia’s colonial and state legal arrangements. Their political circumstances differed from those of the large southeastern nations whose territories states sought for plantation expansion. Their own petitions and defense of treaty rights also helped preserve their communities.

Did the Mattaponi and Pamunkey remain simply because white Virginians respected Indigenous rights?

No. Their lands and continued existence were still challenged. Their survival reflected specific legal relationships, political circumstances, and Indigenous resistance, not the absence of racism or pressure to dispossess them.

How did Indigenous Americans resist removal?

They petitioned Congress, used diplomacy, pursued court cases, defended their treaty rights, refused to leave, and sometimes fought militarily. Cherokee opposition to the Treaty of New Echota and Seminole resistance are important examples.

What was the Women’s Anti-Removal Petition Campaign?

An organized effort beginning in 1829–1830 in which women petitioned Congress against forced Indigenous removal. Catharine Beecher circulated an appeal encouraging women to oppose removal through their moral influence and right to petition.

What arguments did women’s anti-removal petitions make?

They argued that removal violated treaties, Christian morality, national honor, and obligations to protect Indigenous communities. They warned that forced displacement would destroy homes and expose families to suffering and death.

Why was women’s anti-removal petitioning politically important?

Women generally lacked voting rights, but petitions allowed them to intervene in national policy. The campaign expanded women’s public political activity and helped develop organizing methods later used in other reform movements.

What limitation should be remembered about white women’s anti-removal arguments?

Some opposed removal while still using paternalistic language and treating Christianity or assimilation as evidence that Indigenous people deserved protection. Their opposition did not always mean recognition of full Indigenous equality or sovereignty.

Did the Women’s Anti-Removal Petition Campaign stop removal?

No. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, and removals continued. The campaign nevertheless demonstrated substantial public opposition and expanded women’s organized political participation.