Exam 2 Lecture Review: Cytology, Energetics, Cell Cycle, and Genetics

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering Cytology, Energetics/Metabolism, Cell Cycle, and Genetics for Exam 2 review.

Somatic Cells

All body cells other than reproductive sex cells.

Sex Cells

Reproductive cells (sperm and egg) responsible for passing genetic information to offspring.

Antigens

Cell-surface identification markers that allow the immune system to recognize self cells versus foreign invaders.

Second Messenger System

A cellular signaling pathway where a hydrophilic chemical signal (such as Epinephrine) binds to a membrane receptor, triggering membrane proteins/enzymes to generate an internal messenger like cAMP to produce a cellular response.

Hemolysis

The rupture or bursting of red blood cells due to excessive water intake, typically in a hypotonic environment.

Crenation

The shrinking or shriveling of red blood cells due to water loss, typically in a hypertonic environment.

Energetics

The study of the flow and transformation of energy in living organisms.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a cell or living organism.

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic process by which cells break down glucose to generate ATP, consisting of four steps: Glycolysis, TCA (Krebs) cycle, the intermediate step, and Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

Intermediate Step

The specific reaction step in cellular respiration that occurs between the TCA (Krebs) cycle and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

Oxidation

A chemical reaction involving the loss of electrons from a molecule or atom.

Reduction

A chemical reaction involving the gain of electrons by a molecule or atom.

Aerobic Respiration

Oxygen-requiring pathways of energy production that completely break down cellular substrates to produce high amounts of ATP.

Anaerobic Fermentation

Energy production pathways occurring in the absence of oxygen that produce small amounts of ATP.

Cell Cycle

The orderly sequence of events in which a cell duplicates its contents and divides.

Mitosis

The process of somatic cell nuclear division resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells.

Mitotic Rate

The speed or frequency at which a population of cells undergoes mitosis.

Tumor

An abnormal mass or growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled cell division.

Benign Tumor

A non-cancerous growth of cells that remains localized and does not spread or invade adjacent tissues.

Malignant Tumor

A cancerous tumor capable of invading nearby tissues and metastasizing to distant body sites.

Meiosis

The specialized two-stage division of sex cells that reduces the chromosome number by half to yield haploid gametes.

Tetrad

A structure composed of four chromatids formed by the pairing of homologous chromosomes during synapsis.

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

Synapsis

The side-by-side pairing of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

Codon

A sequence of three consecutive nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid during protein synthesis.

Genetics

The branch of biology focused on the study of heredity and gene variation in organisms.

Gene

A segment of DNA along a chromosome that contains instructions for producing a specific functional RNA or protein.

Locus

The precise physical location of a gene on a chromosome.

Genotype

The underlying genetic composition or set of alleles possessed by an organism.

Phenotype

The observable physical, physiological, or chemical traits of an organism created by its genotype.

Karyotype

A visual display or image showing the full set of an individual's chromosomes organized by size and shape.

Allele

An alternative or variant form of a specific gene located at a given locus.

Dominant Allele

An allele that fully expresses its phenotypic effect in heterozygous form, masking the presence of a recessive allele.

Recessive Allele

An allele whose phenotype is masked in the presence of a dominant allele and is expressed only when homozygous.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene locus.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene locus.

Penetrance

The proportion or percentage of individuals carrying a specific genotype who show the corresponding phenotype.

Expressivity

The degree or intensity with which a particular genotype is expressed in the phenotype of an individual.

Teratogen

An environmental agent or substance that causes developmental malformations or birth defects in an embryo or fetus.

Aneuploidy

A chromosome abnormality involving an extra or missing individual chromosome.

Down's syndrome

A genetic disorder resulting from chromosomal aneuploidy (specifically trisomy 21).

Sickle Cell Anemia

An autosomal recessive genetic disorder affecting hemoglobin and red blood cell shape.

Huntington's disease

An autosomal dominant genetic disorder leading to progressive neurological degeneration.

Tay Sach's disease

An autosomal recessive genetic disorder affecting enzyme production and nerve cells.

Kleinfelter's

A genetic disorder in males caused by chromosomal aneuploidy (extra X chromosome).

Turner's syndrome

A genetic disorder in females caused by chromosomal aneuploidy (missing or partial X chromosome).