OpenStax Psychology 2e Chapter 7

Cognition

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

Cognitive psychology

field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think

Concept

category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences

Prototype

best representation of a concept

Natural concepts

mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences

Artificial concepts

concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics

Schema

(plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

Role schema

set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role

Event schema

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script

Cognitive script

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema

Language

communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another

Lexicon

the words of a given language

Grammar

set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon

Phoneme

basic sound unit of a given language

Morpheme

smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning

Semantics

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Syntax

manner by which words are organized into sentences

Overgeneralization

extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule

Problem-solving strategy

method for solving problems

Trial and error

problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

Algorithm

problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

Heuristic

mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

Working backwards

heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

Mental set

continually using an old solution to a problem without results

Functional fixedness

inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

Anchoring bias

faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

Confirmation bias

faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

Hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't

Representative bias

faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

Availability heuristic

faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

Crystallized intelligence

characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

Fluid intelligence

ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical

Practical intelligence

aka "street smarts"

Analytical intelligence

aligned with academic problem solving and computations

Creative intelligence

ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence

Emotional intelligence

ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others

Creativity

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

Divergent thinking

ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem

Convergent thinking

providing correct or established answers to problems

Intelligence quotient

(also, IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence

Standardization

method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent

Norming

administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups

Flynn effect

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

Representative sample

subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

Standard deviation

measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean

Range of Reaction

each person's response to the environment is unique based on his or her genetic make-up

Dysgraphia

learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly

Dyslexia

common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain

Dyscalculia

learning disability that causes difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics