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Osmoconformers

Organisms that maintain internal osmolarity equal to their environment, such as marine invertebrates.

Osmoregulators

Organisms that actively regulate internal osmolarity regardless of the environment, such as freshwater fish and terrestrial animals.

Renal Cortex

The outer layer of the kidney that contains glomeruli.

Renal Medulla

The inner layer of the kidney that contains loops of Henle and collecting ducts.

Nitrogenous Waste Removal - Ammonia

A waste product that is highly toxic and requires high water availability, typically found in fish and amphibians.

Nitrogenous Waste Removal - Urea

A less toxic waste product that requires energy to produce, typical in mammals and amphibians.

Nitrogenous Waste Removal - Uric Acid

An insoluble waste product that conserves water, typical in birds and reptiles.

Filtration

The process where blood pressure forces fluid into the nephron.

Reabsorption

The process where essential solutes and water are reabsorbed into the blood from the nephron.

Secretion

The process of actively adding additional waste to the filtrate in the nephron.

Excretion

The process where processed urine leaves the body.

Bowman's Capsule

A structure that encases the glomerulus and serves as a filtration site in the nephron.

Distal Tubule

The part of the nephron that regulates pH and electrolyte balance.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A system where renin activates angiotensin leading to vasoconstriction and aldosterone increases sodium/water retention.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A hormone that increases water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney.

Autocrine Signaling

A form of cell signaling where a cell signals itself.

Paracrine Signaling

A type of local signaling between nearby cells.

Hormonal (Endocrine) Signaling

A signaling mechanism where hormones travel through the blood to reach distant targets.

Water-Soluble Hormones

Hormones that bind to extracellular receptors, such as peptides and amines.

Lipid-Soluble Hormones

Hormones that can cross the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors, such as steroids.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)

Receptors that are key in hormone signaling and activate second messengers like cAMP.

Hypothalamus

An endocrine organ that regulates the pituitary gland.

Neurons

Cell types that transmit signals in the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Supporting cells in the nervous system that perform various functions, like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.

Afferent Signaling

Sensory input signals that are sent to the central nervous system.

Efferent Signaling

Motor commands that are sent from the central nervous system.

Action Potential

A rapid change in membrane potential that initiates nerve impulses.

Continuous Conduction

The slow propagation of an action potential along unmyelinated axons.

Saltatory Conduction

The fast propagation of an action potential along myelinated axons, jumping between Nodes of Ranvier.

Schwann Cells

Cells that form myelin sheaths around axons in the peripheral nervous system.

Refractory Period

A period during which a neuron cannot fire again immediately after an action potential.

Synaptic Signaling

The process where neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft to interact with receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

Mechanoreceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to pressure and vibration.

Nociceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to pain from injury.

Thermoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect changes in temperature.

Photoreceptors

Cells in the retina that detect light; rods are for low light, while cones are for color.

Actin and Myosin Interaction

The mechanism that allows muscle contraction, powered by ATP.