Chapters 2–5 Biology Review Flashcards

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering atomic structure, chemical bonding, emergent properties of water, functional groups, and biological macromolecules.

Subatomic Particles Summary Table

A breakdown of subatomic particles listing proton (charge $+1$, nucleus, $1\,\text{dalton}$), neutron (charge $0$, nucleus, $1\,\text{dalton}$), and electron (charge $-1$, electron cloud, nearly $0\,\text{daltons}$).

Chemical Interactions Overview

A summary table comparing covalent bonds (sharing electrons), polar covalent bonds (unequal sharing), hydrogen bonds (partial charge attraction), and van der Waals interactions (temporary uneven electron distribution).

Chemical Context Concepts (Do Not Confuse Part 1)

Key distinctions including atomic number vs. mass number, neutral atom vs. ion, element vs. isotope, valence electrons vs. all electrons, and polar vs. nonpolar covalent bonds.

Chemical Context Concepts (Do Not Confuse Part 2)

Key distinctions including hydrogen bond vs. van der Waals interaction, 2-D molecular drawing vs. 3-D molecular shape, forward vs. reverse reaction, and equilibrium vs. equal concentrations.

Functional Groups Chart

A table detailing the seven major functional groups (hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl), their chemical structures, and their major properties.

DNA vs. RNA Comparison Table

A comparative reference table distinguishing DNA (deoxyribose, A/T/C/G, double-stranded, hereditary storage) and RNA (ribose, A/U/C/G, single-stranded, gene expression/protein synthesis).

Essential Elements of Life

The four primary elements—Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N)—that make up approximately $96\%$ of living matter.

Trace Element

An element required by living organisms in only a tiny amount, such as iron (Fe), that is nonetheless essential for survival.

Proton

A subatomic particle located in the nucleus with a charge of $+1$ and an approximate mass of $1\,\text{dalton}$.

Neutron

A subatomic particle located in the nucleus with a charge of $0$ and an approximate mass of $1\,\text{dalton}$.

Electron

A subatomic particle located in the electron cloud with a charge of $-1$ and an approximate mass of nearly $0\,\text{daltons}$.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which identifies the element.

Mass Number

The total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

Isotope

An atomic form of an element that shares the same number of protons but differs in the number of neutrons.

Valence Electrons

The electrons located in an atom's outer shell that determine much of its chemical behavior and bonding capacity.

Electronegativity

An atom's measure of attraction for the shared electrons in a covalent bond.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond between two atoms with different electronegativities, leading to unequal electron sharing and creation of partial charges ($\delta^-$ and $\delta^+$).

Hydrogen Bond

A weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom bound to an electronegative atom and another nearby electronegative atom.

Van der Waals Interaction

A weak attraction caused by temporary asymmetrical electron distributions that produce fleeting regions of partial charge.

Chemical Equilibrium

The point in a reversible reaction at which the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, resulting in stable concentrations of reactants and products.

Cohesion

The binding together of like molecules, such as water molecules forming hydrogen bonds with one another.

Adhesion

The attraction between different substances, such as water molecules adhering to plant cell walls.

Surface Tension

A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, produced by high cohesive forces.

Specific Heat

The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for $1\,\text{g}$ of a substance to change its temperature by $1^\circ\text{C}$.

Heat of Vaporization

The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for $1\,\text{g}$ of it to be converted from liquid to gas.

Evaporative Cooling

The process where the surface of an object becomes cooler during evaporation, as the kinetic energy of remaining liquid molecules decreases.

Hydration Shell

The sphere of water molecules surrounding each dissolved ion or polar molecule in an aqueous solution.

Buffer

A solution typically composed of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists drastic shifts in pH by accepting or donating $\text{H}^+$.

Structural Isomer

Molecules with the same molecular formula that differ in the covalent arrangement of their constituent atoms.

Cis-Trans Isomer

Molecules that share the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangement around an inflexible double bond.

Enantiomer

Isomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other due to the presence of an asymmetric or chiral carbon.

Hydroxyl Group

A functional group ($-\text{OH}$) that is polar, participates in hydrogen bonding, and increases molecular solubility.

Carbonyl Group

A functional group ($>\text{C}=\text{O}$) found in aldehydes and ketones that is polar.

Carboxyl Group

An acidic functional group ($-\text{COOH}$) that can donate $\text{H}^+$ to a solution.

Amino Group

A basic functional group ($-\text{NH}_2$) that can accept $\text{H}^+$ from a solution.

Sulfhydryl Group

A functional group ($-\text{SH}$) capable of forming covalent disulfide bonds to stabilize protein structure.

Phosphate Group

A functional group ($-\text{OPO}_3^{2-}$) with a negative charge involved in energy transfer and activity regulation.

Methyl Group

A nonpolar functional group ($-\text{CH}_3$) that can affect gene expression and molecular shape.

Monomer

A small repeating chemical unit that serves as the building block of a polymer.

Polymer

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers joined by covalent bonds.

Dehydration Reaction

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks bonds between monomers by adding a water molecule.

Amphipathic Molecule

A molecule, such as a phospholipid, containing both a hydrophilic (polar) region and a hydrophobic (nonpolar) region.

Denaturation

A process in which a protein loses its native shape and function due to the disruption of non-covalent interactions.