M&E 3 and 4

Nervous system

processes sensory info and coordinates reactions and behaviors

Neurotransmitter

a chemical sent by one neuron to an adjacent neuron where it binds to the cell membrane; sends info rapidly

Endocrine system

controls and coordinates internal processes that sustain normal functioning

Hormone

a chemical released by a gland into the blood stream in order to regulate activity in another part of the body; send info more slowly and have longer lasting effects

Homeostasis

a stable state of balance in the body

Neuron

cell used to transmit info in the brain

Nerves

bundles of neurons

Central nervous system

brain + spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

everything outside the brain and spinal cord; communicates info from the brain and spinal cord to and from organs, muscles, and glands

Afferent nerves

nerves that communicate info to CNS

Efferent nerves

nerves that communicate info to PNS

Hindbrain

the area of the CNS above the spinal cord; responsible for the regulation of essential survival needs; it is made up of the cerebellum, the medulla oblongata, and the pons

Cerebellum

helps to coordinate smooth muscle movements

Medulla Oblongata

the first structure above the spinal cord; controls reflexes related to heart-rate, breathing, salivation, sneezing, and coughing

Pons

the thicker area above the medulla; it is integral to breathing and sleep; this area is a bridge between the two sides of the hindbrain and between the hindbrain and midbrain

Midbrain

the area of the CNS above the hindbrain; helps to regulate body temp, process sensory input, and coordinate certain muscle movements; also helps with arousal and sleep

Reticular formation

a network of neurons that runs through the upper hindbrain into the midbrain; it is important for arousal and the production of neurotransmitters

Forebrain

responsible for cognitive activities and generating intentional movement

Cortex

the outer layer of the brain responsible for cognition, interpretation of sensory info, and voluntary physical movement

Prefrontal cortex

involved in planning, decision-making, and problem solving (Executive functioning)

Thalamus

the relay station for sensory info

Hypothalamus

responsible for hormone release and regulation of behavior including the fight or flight response

Basal Ganglia

responsible for smooth, intentional movement; each ganglia sits on either side of the brain

Limbic system

responsible for emotion and memory; consists of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus

Hippocampus

responsible for memory consolidation

Cingulate gyrus

responsible for emotional expression through gestures

Amygdala

emotion control enter of the brain; acts as a link between a stimulus and reaction to the stimulus

Somatic nervous system

controls voluntary muscle movements

Autonomic nervous system

controls the unconscious regulation of organs; contains the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

mobilizes energy for emergency stress responses (fight-or-flight); it mobilizes energy by increasing the amount of oxygen available to cells by increasing breathing, increasing heart-rate, and releasing stored energy in the form of calories; it also slows down body functions unimportant during emergency

Parasympathetic nervous system

conserves energy and restores damage to the body; once and emergency has passed, the sympathetic nervous system is suppressed and the parasympathetic nervous system takes over to return us to homeostasis

Gland

an organ that produces and secretes hormones that regulate body function

Hormone

a chemical that regulates activity in another part of the body

Negative feedback loop

creates a decrease in function in order to maintain homeostasis

Gray matter

cell bodies of neurons; responsible for higher level cognition

White matter

myelinated axons of neurons

Cortex

outer layer of brain responsible for higher level processes; area where most gray matter is found

Norepinephrine

excitatory neurotransmitter that boosts many brain functions and is involved in fight-or-flight

Dopamine

excitatory neurotransmitter that is responsible for attention, reward, pleasure, and signaling muscles to move

Serotonin

inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, appetite, pain, and digestion

GABA

inhibitory and calming chemical in the CNS

Acetylcholine

the primary chemical signal in the PNS; helps regulate rest and digestion

Dorsal

above

Ventral

below

Fissure

deep groove

Gyrus

fold or ridge; increases surface area

Sulcus

shallow groove

Nucleus

CNS cluster

Ganglion

PNS cluster

Cortical area

responsible for conscious, deliberate, intentional, and purposeful thinking; oriented in goals, planning, decision-making, problem solving, cognitive-based motivation

Subcortical area

responsible for basic urges and impulse areas of the brain; unconscious, automatic, urgent, impulsive, body regulation, emotion-based motivation

Delayed gratification

the ability to postpone an immediate gain in favor of a larger gain in the future

Dual-process model

an explanation of a psychological outcome that is based on two different processes; the two processes may work together, or conflict

Bidirectional communication

interconnections that send signals to and from different regions of the brain

• Bottom-up: subcortical generates

• Top-down: cortical generates/modifies

Hypothalamus

regulates basic level motives like thirst, appetite, and body temperature

• it creates the drive that leads to motivation

• it is involved with arousal

• it is a connector between the ANS and endocrine system

Amygdala

the emotion center of the brain; it detects and responds to significant stimuli, and further generates positive or negative emotional arousal; it responds to negative stimuli more strongly

• It is especially good at recognizing nonverbal facial expressions

• Upstream links from the amygdala to the PFC are much stronger than downstream links from the PFC to the amygdala

Basal ganglia

a large area that ranges from the cerebellum through the midbrain; has some involvement in emotion but is most often seen as having a role in starting and carrying out intentional movement

• Contains the substantia nigra, an area that makes dopamine

• The motor cortex begins the process of voluntary movement, while the basal ganglia act like a constant brake that keep involuntary movements from occurring

• Signals get sent to motor cortex → basal ganglia → other subcortical areas to release inhibitions against involuntary movement

Reward pathway

a conduit that uses dopamine to create feelings of pleasure; consists of areas of the brain that produce and release dopamine, make a behavior more likely because it is linked to dopamine release, and help form memory of the experience so that the behavior can be repeated

Ventral tegmentum

main area responsible for dopamine production related to pleasure; located at the top of the hindbrain, below the hippocampus and behind the amygdala

• dopaminergic neurons extend toward the PFC to create pathways for delivering dopamine to cortical areas

Substantia nigra

an area that also makes dopamine, but sends it to areas of the brain involved with movement

• it projects dopaminergic neurons into the striate nucleus, where the nucleus accumbens is located

Nucleus accumbens

helps to form memories of positive and negative environmental stimuli; dopamine levels in the NA rise in response to both rewarding and aversive stimuli, which becomes a motive for behavior

Insula

involved with conscious awareness and the processing of bodily sensations, involved with turning uneasy feelings (e.g. a queasy stomach) into decisions about how we will behave; it is buried deep in a fissure and not directly visible from the surface

Anterior cingulate cortex

regulates emotion and monitors for motivational conflict

Orbitofrontal cortex

an area just above our eyes that helps us process and store info about objects and events that have a potential reward value to them; it helps us to make choices between different objects and develop a preference over time

• OFC activation drops in response to the choice once a decision occurs, but activation does not drop in response to the item not chosen

Prefrontal cortex

the part of our anatomy that makes us uniquely human; it is located right behind the forehead and is responsible for executive functioning

Executive functioning

cognitive activity that controls impulses and plans action; includes aspects of thought like planning, time management, impulse control, delayed gratification

How do emotional experiences vary in both hemispheres

• positive emotions are experienced more in the left hemisphere, while negative emotions occur more in the right hemisphere

• Emotion tied to motivation is being differently activated by the two hemispheres; approach motivation is left hemisphere dominant, while avoidance motivation is right hemisphere dominant

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex

evaluates the unlearned emotional value of sensory stimuli; if an object appears to have potential value, the vmPFC experiences an increase in dopamine in anticipation of an object’s benefits

• the vmPFC is also responsible for emotional control, which allows for delay of gratification and effective planning and decision making

• the vmPFC can combine emotional arousal with social context to influence and develop judgements such as truth and morality

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

evaluates the learned emotional value of stimuli; it can help with cognitive tasks like decision making and planning for long-term goals due to its learned aspects

Agonist

drug that mimics neurotransmitter

Antagonist

drug that blocks neurotransmitter