Unit 2: Perception, Thinking, Memory, Intelligence, and Testing

Vocabulary review cards covering perception, thinking, memory, intelligence, and cognitive psychology concepts from Unit 2.

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment or visual scene.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition or readiness to perceive one thing and not another.

Gestalt

An organized whole; the perspective emphasizing our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Grouping

The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent, meaningful groups based on rules like proximity, similarity, and continuity.

Phi phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

Depth perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions, allowing us to judge distance.

Visual cliff

A laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants and young animals.

Binocular cue

A depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes.

Monocular cue

A depth cue available to either eye alone.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the slight difference between the two images cast on the retinas of each eye.

Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, or size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best or correct answer.

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution, contrasting with strategy-based solutions.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy or mental shortcut that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new or different perspective.

Functional fixedness

The cognitive tendency to perceive objects only in terms of their customary or traditional functions.

Framing

The way an issue or question is posed, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Representative heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.

Belief perseverance

Clinging to one's initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that branches out in different directions.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than massed study or cramming.

Flashbulb memory

A clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

Encoding

The initial process of getting information into the memory system.

Visual encoding

The encoding of picture images and visual information.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Acoustic encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurring automatically.

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection, such as motor skills and classical conditioning.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person retrieves information learned earlier without retrieval cues.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention.

Semantic memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge.

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events.

Memory consolidation

The neural storage and stabilization of long-term memories from short-term holding.

Mood congruent

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories after an event causing amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past prior to an event causing amnesia.

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.