AP WORLD CHAPTER 31

Janissaries

attempted coups and became powerful political force; neglected training and new machinery

Loss of military power →

declining effectiveness of central government

Local notables

formed private armies to support Istanbul sultan in return for autonomy

Anatolia

The heart of the Ottoman empire

Russian forces

took over central Asian territories of Ottoman empire

Austrian empire

attacked from west

Nationalist uprisings

forced Ottoman rulers to recognize independence of Balkan provinces like Greece and Serbia

Egypt

most significant loss; most powerful land in the Ottoman Empire

Napoleon

invaded Egypt to use it as land to take over British India; failed but sparked turmoil and led to local elites fighting for power

Muhammad Ali

built powerful army modeled on European forces and ruled Egypt (1805-1848); drafted peasants, hired French and Italian officers for training, and launched an industrialization program; even invaded Anatolia and Syria to topple the Ottoman state; made Egypt an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire

1820

Muhammad Ali became legitimate ruler of Egypt

Ottoman’s survival

thanks to British forces who were scared Russia would gain too much power

Atlantic Ocean Basin

where the focus of European trade shifted to in in the 1700s; Ottomans had no prescence in it

Artisans and Craft Workers of the Ottoman

frequently led riots to protest foreign imports as they placed high pressure on them economically

foreign loans

what the Ottomans relied on for their economic development

European capital

financed the construction of railroad, utilities, and mining enterprises

Interest Payments

consumed ½ of the Ottoman’s revenues

1882

Ottomans were unable to pay debts and fell to foreign administration

CAPITULATIONS

agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality; regarded by Ottomans as humiliating intrusions on their sovereignty; served as economic penetration tool as European business-people established tax-exempt banks and commercial enterprises and permitted levy on their goods

Extraterritoriality

the rights to rule citizens based on own laws

Ottoman bureaucracy

too expensive to maintain; difficulties paying salaries

Declining incomes →

rise in corruption

Increased taxation

exploitation of peasantry and decline in agricultural production

Reform Efforts

began in the 1600s as sultans sought to limit taxation, increase agricultural production, and end corruption

Sultan Selim III

started program of reconstructing his army to European lines; this creation threatened the Janissaries and they responded back in violence, killing everyone except Selim’s cousin Mahmud II

Mahmud II’s Reform Program

encroachment of European powers and separatist ambitions of local rulers persuaded Mahmud to launch his own reform program; insured that it was a recreation of the traditional army rather than a new foreign influence; killed the Janissaries that disagreed; remodeled along European lines by dressing soldiers in European clothing and weapons

Mahmud’s government

Created system of secondary education for boys to transition from mosque schools to scientific or military academies; tried to transfer power back to sultan from local powers (taxing, abolishing land grants, undermining ulama)

Ulama

Islamic leadership

Mahmud’s authority

Strengthened by establishment of European ministries, new roads, telegraph lines, and postal service

Mahmud’s death (1839)

While empire was smaller, it was more manageable and powerful

Tanzimat

Reorganization

TANZIMAT ERA (1839-1876)

increased reform rate; drew considerable influence from Enlightenment thought and constitutional freedom of western European states

Tanzimat reformers

Attacked Ottoman law to make it acceptable to Europeans so that capitulations could be lifted; used french system as a guide; issued decrees for rights of subjects

four codes established by the Tanzimats

commercial code, penal code, maritime code, civil code

Decrees to safeguard rights of subjects

guaranteed public trials, rights of privacy, equality before law regardless of ethnicity or religion

Marriage and Divorce matters

Still fell under religious law

Legal reform of Tanzimats

undermined ulama and enhanced Ottoman authority

Educational reform of Tanzimats

also undermined ulama who controlled religious education

Tanzimat’s comphrehensive plan for educational reform (1846)

Provided complete primary and secondary schools to universities; more ambitious plan wanted free complusory primary education

Religious conservatives

Against tanzimats; argued they posed threat to Islamic foundation

Devout Muslims

Viewed tanzimat’s extension of legal equality as contrary to Islamic law

Minority leaders

Opposed tanzimats fearing they would diminish their power

YOUNG OTTOMANS

desired establishment of a constitutional government along the British system

Ottoman bureaucracy

Most dangerous opponent to Tanzimats; high-level bureaucrats determined to impose checks on sultan’s power by forcing acceptance of constitution

1876,