unit 4 vocab ap psych

Cognition

the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering. Thinking, and knowing

Artificial intelligence (AI)

a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

Thinking

the process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

Concepts

mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Prototype model

Problem solving

the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available

Subgoals

intermediate goals or intermediate problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution

Algorithms

strategies, including formulas, instructions, and testing of all possible solutions that guarantee a solution to a problem

Heuristics

shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

Fixation

using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective
Functional fixedness

Reasoning

the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

Inductive reasoning

reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations

Deductive reasoning

reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

Decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

Loss aversion

the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains

Confirmation bias

the tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them

Hindsight bias

the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome

Availability heuristic

a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

Base rate neglect

the tendency to ignore statistical information in favor of very specific but vivid information

Representativeness heuristic

the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

Mindfulness

the state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities

Open-mindedness

the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things

Creativity

the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems

Divergent thinking

thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

Convergent thinking

thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

Intelligence

an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience

Validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance

Standardization

the development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test

Mental age (MA)

an individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100

Normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range

Culture-fair tests

intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

Heritability

the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group’s members

Gifted

processing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and

or superior talent in a particular area

Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)

a condition of limited mental ability that affects an individual’s functioning in everyday life

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg’s theory that intelligence comes in three forms

Language

a form of communication whether spoken, written, or signed that is based on a system of symbols

Phonology

a language’s sound system

Morphology

a language’s rules for word formation

Syntax

a language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences

Semantics

meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

Pragmatics

the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized

Executive function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

Cognitive appraisal

interpreting the events and experiences in one’s life as harmful and threatening, or as challenging, and determining whether one has the resources to cope effectively

Coping

managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life’s problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress

Cognitive reappraisal

regulating one’s feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle