Clas276 exam 1

Livy

narrator for the 12 tables, describing Decemvirate, the abuse of power by Appius Claudius, and the pleb revolt after

Twelve Tables as a major step in the “struggle of the orders,” codified law meant to keep plebs down and unaware

highlights themes of tyranny, civic virtue, and the dangers of concentrated power.

Plutarch

Life of Numa and Gaius Gracchus

The biographies blended history and moral interpretation, focused on character, virtue, and political motives.

contrasted Greeks and Romans to compare character, virtue, and moral interpretation that shaped events

Romulus and Remus

Numa, Plutarch recounts the death of Romulus: during a storm at the Goat’s Marsh, he disappears, leading to suspicion that the patricians murdered him

Patricians defuse the crisis by claiming Romulus was taken to heaven and became the god Quirinus.

shows early tensions between patricians and people and their use of myth for stabilization

Numa Pompilius

Second king of Rome, chosen after Romulus’s mysterious death, Sabine known for piety, justice, and philosophical temperament

Plutarch emphasizes debates over chronology and whether Numa was influenced by Pythagoras, ultimately portraying him as a civilizing lawgiver.

associated with peace, religious institutions, and the softening of Roman culture

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus

Seventh and final king of Rome, remembered as a tyrant whose violent rise to power and oppressive rule helped provoke the end of the monarchy.

regime was marked by disregard for law, use of fear, and elimination of political rivals, culminating in widespread resentment among both patricians and plebeians.

catalyst for his overthrow was the rape of Lucretia by his son Sextus, which ignited the revolt led by Brutus and established the Roman Republic.

Conflict of the Orders

Appears indirectly in the Twelve Tables and Livy’s narrative of the Decemvirate.

struggle centers on plebeian demands for legal transparency, protection from patrician magistrates, and political representation.

Twelve Tables emerge as a plebeian victory, though the decemvirs’ tyranny shows how reforms could be integrated

The Twelve Tables

Rome’s earliest codified law code, produced by the decemvirs in 451–449 BCE to address plebeian demands for legal equality.

includes civil procedure, debt, family law, property, torts, and public law; notable for harsh penalties and formalism.

Livy’s account shows how the decemvirs abused their power, leading to the Second Secession and restoration of the republic.

Cornelius Nepos

Life of Hannibal.

emphasizes Hannibal’s military genius, personal discipline, and unwavering hatred of Rome.

biography is moralizing and concise, highlighting character traits instead of political matters for the most part

The Punic Wars (First, Second, Third)

Nepos focuses on Hannibal’s campaigns: crossing the Alps, victories at Trebia, Trasimene, and Cannae, and eventual defeat by Scipio at Zama.

stresses Hannibal’s strategic brilliance and the political undermining he suffered from Carthaginian elites.

war becomes a moral tale about leadership, envy, and national decline.

Polybius

explains Rome’s rise to world power and the mixed constitution

argues Rome succeeded because of its balanced system: consuls (monarchical), senate (aristocratic), and people (democratic) checking each other.

sees the Second Punic War as the turning point that launched Rome toward universal empire.

Hannibal(carthage)

Nepos portrays him as the greatest general of antiquity, undefeated in Italy until political betrayal at home.

oath of eternal hatred for Rome, crossing the Alps, major victories, defeat at Zama, exile, and eventual suicide to avoid Roman capture.

symbolizes both Carthaginian resilience and the internal corruption

The Gracchi(gaius)

depicts him as a powerful orator, more radical than Tiberius, driven partly by grief and partly by political necessity.

reforms include land redistribution, subsidized grain, judicial restructuring (equites as jurors), and attempts to extend citizenship to Italians

Equestrians (Equites)

wealthy elite citizens

romans wealthy enough to own horses, served in calvary

didnt take part in political life

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Roman general and dictator who marched on Rome twice and initiated proscriptions to eliminate political enemies.

Defeated Marius’s supporters in the civil wars and restructured the Republic by strengthening the senate and weakening the tribunate.

dictatorship set a precedent for using military force to seize political power.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher known for his speeches, letters, and works on rhetoric and political theory

As consul in 63 BCE, he suppressed the Catilinarian Conspiracy and was hailed as pater patriae (“father of the fatherland”)

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus

Leading Roman general and statesman who formed the First Triumvirate with Caesar and Crassus.

Expanded Roman power in the East, defeating Mithridates and reorganizing provinces

Civil war with Caesar ended in his defeat; he was assassinated in Egypt in 48 BCE

The First Triumvirate

Informal political alliance (60 BCE) between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus to dominate Roman politics.

Not an official office but a private agreement to support each other’s ambitions.

Collapsed after Crassus’s death (53 BCE) and Pompey’s drift toward the senate, leading to civil war with Caesar.

The Ides of March

On March 15, 44 BCE, Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius.

Motivated by fears that Caesar aimed to become king and destroy the Republic

assassination triggered a new cycle of civil wars that ultimately led to the rise of Augustus.

Tacitus (Annals and Histories)

Roman senator and historian known for his penetrating analysis of imperial politics and corruption.

Augustus

Dominic Green’s “Oligarchy in America,” which compares modern U.S. oligarchy to Augustus’s consolidation of power

described as creating Rome’s first imperial oligarchy, preserving the “image of a free constitution” while holding real authority.

regime becomes a model for how republics slide into autocracy under the guise of stability

The Res Gestae

Autobiographical inscription in which Augustus lists his achievements, honors, and public benefactions.

Presented as a justification of his rule and a statement of restored republican values

Copies were displayed throughout the empire

The Second Triumvirate

Official, legally constituted alliance (43 BCE) between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus with extraordinary powers.

Conducted proscriptions, defeated Caesar’s assassins at Philippi, and divided the Roman world among themselves.

Collapsed as Octavian and Antony turned against each other, leading to the final civil war.

The Battle of Actium (31 BCE)

Naval battle in which Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra off the coast of Greece.

Decisive victory that ended the civil wars and paved the way for Octavian to become Augustus.

Marked the end of the Hellenistic era and the beginning of the Roman Empire.

Claudius

Roman emperor (41–54 CE) who expanded the empire, most notably by conquering Britain.

Strengthened the imperial bureaucracy and relied heavily on freedmen administrators.

Assassinated, likely with involvement from his wife Agrippina, who sought to secure Nero’s succession.

Nero

Last Julio‑Claudian emperor (54–68 CE), known for artistic ambitions, political murders, and authoritarian rule.

Great Fire of Rome (64 CE) occurred during his reign; he blamed Christians, initiating early persecutions.

Overthrown by revolt and committed suicide, triggering the Year of the Four Emperors.

Vespasian

Founder of the Flavian dynasty after winning the civil war of 69 CE

Restored stability, reformed finances, and began construction of the Colosseum.

Known for practical, military‑minded leadership.

Trajan

Emperor (98–117 CE) who presided over the empire’s greatest territorial extent.

Conquered Dacia and launched campaigns in the East; known for public works like Trajan’s Forum.

Remembered as one of the “Five Good Emperors.”

Hadrian

Emperor (117–138 CE) who consolidated rather than expanded the empire.

Built Hadrian’s Wall in Britain and reorganized provincial administration.

Known for cultural patronage and the rebuilding of the Pantheon.

Marcus Aurelius

Philosopher‑emperor (161–180 CE), author of Meditations, a key Stoic text.

Spent much of his reign fighting frontier wars, especially against Germanic tribes.

His death marked the end of the Pax Romana.

Caracalla’s Citizenship Decree

Edict granting Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the empire.

Expanded tax base and unified legal status across provinces.

Marked a major shift in Roman identity and imperial administration.

Fifty Years of Anarchy (235–284 CE)

Period of military chaos, rapid turnover of emperors, and external invasions.

Characterized by economic collapse, plague, and fragmentation of imperial authority

Ended by Diocletian’s rise and reforms.

Pliny the Younger

Senator, lawyer, and letter‑writer whose correspondence provides key insight into Roman administration and daily life.

Served as governor of Bithynia; his letters to Trajan include the earliest Roman documentation of Christians.

His eyewitness account of the eruption of Vesuvius (79 CE) is a major historical source.

Diocletian

In Dominic Green’s essay as a model for modern “static states” that centralize power and regulate economic life.

Edict on Maximum Prices is referenced as an example of state intervention in markets during crisis.

symbolizes late‑imperial authoritarian stabilization.

Diocletian’s Edict on Maximum Prices

Mentioned in Green’s essay as a historical parallel to modern economic controls.

Represents an attempt to regulate inflation and stabilize a collapsing imperial economy.

Used to illustrate how late empires respond to crisis with bureaucratic overreach.

The Tetrarchy

Referenced in Green’s essay as part of Diocletian’s restructuring of imperial governance.

Designed to stabilize succession and decentralize authority across four rulers.

Serves as an example of institutional adaptation in declining empires.

Constantine

First Christian Roman emperor; issued the Edict of Milan (313 CE) granting religious toleration.

Reunified the empire and founded Constantinople as a new capital.

presided over the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), shaping early Christian orthodoxy.

Julian (“the Apostate”)

Emperor (361–363 CE) who attempted to restore traditional pagan religion after decades of Christianization.

Known for administrative reforms, philosophical writings, and military campaigns against Persia.

Died during the Persian campaign, ending the last major pagan revival

The Fall of Rome

Dominic Green uses Rome’s fall as a comparative framework for modern American oligarchy.

emphasizes internal decay, class division, and the erosion of republican norms as key drivers.

analogy suggests that republics collapse not from invasion but from internal transformation into oligarchy.