College 2

group dynamics

attachment processes

people develop so-called working models of self and others that provide us with expectations of whether others will be available and responsive to our needs when necessary

Why are people attracted to groups?

• People are drawn to groups for various reasons, such as fulfilling psychological needs (e.g., belonging, security) or achieving specific goals.

• The decision to join a group can also be influenced by social factors, like normative pressure (feeling expected to join), personal interests, or seeing membership as a status enhancer.

Tuckman’s model of group development

• forming: initial stage where group members meet and establish initial connections

• Storming: Conflict arises as members begin to assert their opinions and roles.

• Norming: The group begins to develop norms, rules, and a clearer structure.

• Performing: The group starts working more effectively towards its goals.

• Adjourning: The group disbands after achieving its objectives

social influence in groups

• Social influence refers to the ways in which individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped by others in a group. This influence can occur both consciously and unconsciously.

• In small groups, people tend to conform to group norms to maintain harmony and avoid conflict. This is known as normative influence, where individuals align with the group’s standards to be accepted.

• Informational influence also plays a role: individuals look to the group for information when they are uncertain or when the group is seen as knowledgeable or competent.

models of relationships (Fiske)

• communal sharing (CS)

• authority ranking (AR)

• equality matching (EM)

• marker pricing (MP)

to know a culture is to know which relational model to use in which situation

communal sharing (CS)

Group members treat each other equally and share resources without tracking individual contributions.

• characterized by solidarity, common identity and commensality

• e.g. communal eating (without taking count)

• violation: lack of in-group loyality (like leaving the group)

• Dates waarbij de man alles betaalt zijn een voorbeeld van CS, want ze denken dat er nog een volgende keer komt waarbij de ander kan betalen. Dit zijn dan ook de dates waarbij mensen vaak wel op tweede date willen

authority ranking (AR)

Group members are ranked hierarchically, and those higher in the hierarchy have more power and privileges

• characterized by precedence, asymmetrical power and deference

• e.g. leader may speak first; may have first pick in profits

• violation: disrespect for authority

equality matching (EM)

Members strive for equal balance and reciprocity in their interactions, making sure each person gets a fair share

• characterized by quid pro yo, reciprocity, turn-taking, egalitarism

• e.g. ‘to each the same’ when distributing among equals

• violation: unfairness

marker pricing (MP)

Group interactions are based on proportionality and rational exchanges, similar to transactions in a marketplace.

• characterized by commodity values and cost-benefit calculation

• e.g. negatiating prices at the market

• violation: altruism

minority influence

crucial for promoting change and innovation within groups, while group cohesion typically fosters productivity but can lead to groupthink if unchecked.

• needs to be consistent, confident and able to offer a compelling alternative to the status quo

first step of group formation

choosing a group you want to belong to, so you look at their characteristics. People choose groups that benefit them most en cost them least (physical proximity and common goals)

• males tend to favor larger groups, females tend to favor smaller and informal groups

Leadership in groups

• Leaders within small groups are crucial for setting norms and directing the behavior of group members.

• Effective leaders are often those who are seen as embodying the group’s identity and values. They don’t just lead by force, but by being perceived as representative of the group’s best interests.

• Leaders can use both persuasion (getting members to agree willingly) and coercion (forcing conformity) to maintain influence within the group

social attraction

people choose groups whose ‘prototype’ matches the self (there has to be a fit between the group’s social identity and the individual; the groupy individual)

hazing rituals

joining a group, initiations (bijv. ontgroening)

schachters affiliation experiment

2 groepen, 1 kreeg uitleg waar ze bang van werden (het ging pijn doen, er stond een eng apparaat), de andere groep kreeg te horen dat het geen pijn deed etc. low-fear en high-fear condities). De high-fear conditie proefpersonen wilden liever samen wachten met iemand dan alleen: misery loves company.

Why initiations (ontgroeningen)

• symbolic transition to new identity

• introduction to norms and values of group

• bonding, it helps members form strong attachment to existing members and integrate into the group more smoothly

• fostering loyalty / cohesion (because it wasn’t easy to get in the group, so members place more value on their membership)

cognitive dissonance

individuals join groups that evoke cognitive dissonance, caused by their positive desire to join (wanting to be part) and their negative experience of joining (the initiation). Resolves by increasing the attractiveness of the group

• individuals justify their effort by increasing the value of the group

returning to affiliation

Fear, or anxiety about something uncertain, leads to a need for affiliation and thus to a need for a cohesive group

what do negative experiences during an initiation do?

they increase negative affects and decreases group attraction. But companionate exchanges increase group attraction

• humiliated misery avoids company, but collective derogation evokese less humiliation

• so initiations work, but they do not have to be negative

groupthink

the desire for agreement overrides the ability to make critical decisions or entertain dissenting viewpoints

• downside to too much cohesion

Mensen synchroniseren

• op meer manieren dan alleen synchroon zijn

• bewust en onbewust (mensen op een rocking chair coördineren automatisch, zelfs als het door gewichten moeilijk wordt gemaakt om te doen.)

• we zien mensen die synchroon zijn als een cohesive entity

• mensen gingen samen lopen en zingen, als ze vervolgens een spel moesten doen konden ze beter samenwerken omdat ze al eerder hadden gesynchroniseerd

cohesion

• sum of all interpersonal attraction of all group members

• attraction to the prototype of the group → a group is more than a collection of individuals: contact is necessary: cohesion can exist when individual group members do not like each other

self-categorization theory

similarities within a group are the basis for identity formation

• diversity is problematic

inductive identity formation

social identities can be build from the bottom-up, on expressions of individuality → diversity serves as input for group formation

experiment about reading together

participants generated more ideas and more creative ideas when they had engaged in turn-taking than when they had engaged in synchronous coordinated action

auditory delays

• Conversational flow informs us whether things are ok or not. Informs about the status of the relationship and whether there is consensus on the issue.

• differences in paralinguistic features (accents), nonverbal behaviors may negatively affect intergroup interactions by:

  • increasing salience of group membership, thereby intensifying ingroup-outgroup distinctins

  • causing disfluencies which are cognitively taxing, undermine understanding

• delay emphasises the anxiety when talking to a members of a different group