global development

What is the sociological definition of Development?

The process by which societies change over time.

What is Global Development?

links human development with international efforts to reduce poverty and inequality, as well as improve health, education, and job opportunities worldwide

What are four main ways countries and societies are measured in global development?

• Economic measures

• Social measures

• Humanist (quality of life) measures

• Poverty measures

How did COVID-19 hinder global development?

Lockdowns caused negative impacts

• economic consequences

• education

• mental health

• excess mortality.

Economic recessions

• increased poverty headcount projections globally (e.g., East Asia, South Asia).

How have UK Foreign Aid cuts impacted global development?

In 2021, the UK reduced its annual foreign aid budget from 0.7% of GNI (where it had been since 2015) to 0.5% (and projected to fall to 0.3% after 2026). This reduced funding directly hinders essential aid programmes in the world's poorest countries

Why is the 2021 withdrawal from Afghanistan relevant to global development?

the Taliban takeover demonstrates how past attempts at development (even extreme military/political ones) have clear weaknesses, highlighting how fragile development efforts can be when geopolitical conditions change.

How is Economic Growth defined in global development?

An increase in the monetary value of a country's produce over time relative to other countries. Over time, economies usually shift from production to higher levels of consumption.

What three structural stages do economies typically progress through?

• Subsistence - producing only enough for basic survival

• Mass production and consumption - manufacturing goods in large quantities for widespread buying

• Service industries - shifting from manufacturing to providing services, technology, and finance

What is Gross National Income (GNI) and GNI per capita?

• GNI: The total monetary value of all goods and services produced by a country in a financial year.

• GNI per capita: The GNI divided by the total population.

Why do sociologists criticize using GNI as the sole measure of development?

Fast economic development based purely on GNI is rarely sustainable—either economically or environmentally. It ignores inequality and quality-of-life factors.

What is the "Boom and Bust" critique of economic development?

Failing to invest in long-term sustainability creates unstable economic cycles. During economic busts/recessions, individuals who are unable to save money or buy assets suffer the most.

What are the key social measures used to evaluate development?

• Education: Primary/secondary enrolment rates, adult literacy rates.

• Health: Child/infant mortality, general and maternal mortality, medical infrastructure (hospitals/staff per capita).

• Democracy: Free/fair elections, universal suffrage, freedom of expression and opposition organization.

• Gender Equality: Equal educational attainment, health outcomes, equal access to pay and political participation.

What pitfall occurs when evaluating a nation using only economic metrics like GNI?

It ignores social inequality and human rights. For example, nations with high national income (such as Saudi Arabia) may still exhibit poor welfare systems or restricted human rights.

What is the general geographical pattern regarding human rights standards worldwide?

Countries in the Global North (e.g., Europe, North America) generally score higher on human rights metrics compared to countries in the Global South (e.g., Africa, South America, Southern Asia).

What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?

A composite measure introduced by the United Nations (UN) that combines three core dimensions into a single score: GNI per capita, Education (average and expected years in schooling), and Health (life expectancy).

What alternative measures are featured in the Human Development Report?

• Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Evaluates overlapping poverty factors, including living standards and education.

• Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures reproductive health, political representation, higher education, and workforce participation.

• Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI): Adjusts a country's HDI score based on the level of internal inequality—larger gaps lead to lower IHDI scores.

How do Modernisation Theorists view the relationship between economic and social development?

They argue economic development is a necessary prerequisite to achieve social benefits (such as improved health and education systems).

What exception highlights the gap between economic wealth and HDI?

Cuba demonstrates high life expectancy and educational attainment despite lower economic wealth. Compared to Mexico, which has a higher GDP per capita, Cuba ranks significantly higher on HDI.

What is Peet and Hardwick's critique of traditional development metrics (GNI, GDP, HDI)?

They argue these metrics gloss over underlying issues of inequality, exploitation, and structural power relations. True understanding of development requires analyzing political empowerment and environmental sustainability.

What are two key limitations of using HDI alone to assess social well-being?

• It omits specific qualitative aspects like crime rates, peace, happiness, and gender equality.

• It measures outcomes strictly within national borders, ignoring global environmental impact and international cross-border effects.