Middle Childhood Development (6-12)

Erikson, Big Five, Self-Esteem, and Moral Reasoning

What is the "society of childhood"?

An unwritten playground world in every culture where children create and enforce their own social rules that differ from adult rules.

What example illustrates the "society of childhood" rules?

Trading food at school lunch; a child who refuses is seen as "stuck-up," whereas an adult pushing coworkers to trade lunches would seem pushy or odd.

What is the overarching theme of middle childhood (ages 6-12)?

The development of self-perceived competence (a child's own view of how capable they are).

According to Freud, what is the main task of middle childhood?

To form emotional bonds with peers and move beyond the exclusive parent bonds of earlier years (the root of modern peer rejection research).

What is Erikson's stage for middle childhood (ages 6-12)?

Industry vs. Inferiority.

How does Erikson define "Industry"?

The willingness to work to accomplish goals, primarily centered on mastering culturally defined learning goals like reading and writing.

How does Erikson define "Inferiority"?

The perceived sense of inadequacy or failure a child develops when they are unable to master culturally defined learning goals.

How can a child who struggles academically still develop a sense of industry?

By finding success in other valued pursuits, such as athletics or reading for fun.

What does modern research reveal about Erikson's view of competence?

Children's self-assessments of competence and their real-world achievement in reading and arithmetic are strongly correlated.

What do trait theories emphasize?

Behavioral consistency across situations using stable response patterns (traits).

What do early childhood temperaments evolve into by middle childhood?

The Big Five personality traits.

What mnemonic helps you remember the Big Five traits?

OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) or CANOE.

Define the Big Five trait "Openness/Intellect" and its temperament link.

Artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, original, wide interests

linked to sociability and low inhibition.

Define the Big Five trait "Conscientiousness" and its temperament link.

Efficient, organized, prudent, reliable, responsible;

linked to effortful control and task persistence.

Define the Big Five trait "Extraversion" and its temperament link.

Active, assertive, enthusiastic, outgoing, talkative; linked to high activity level, sociability, and positive emotionality.

Define the Big Five trait "Agreeableness" and its temperament link.

Affectionate, forgiving, generous, kind, sympathetic, trusting; linked to positive emotionality and effortful control.

Define the Big Five trait "Neuroticism (Emotional Instability)" and its temperament link.

Anxious, self-pitying, tense, touchy, unstable, worrying; linked to negative emotionality and irritability.

How does Extraversion affect a child's response to peer rejection vs. Introversion to taunts?

Extraverted kids become more determined to be accepted; introverted kids often withdraw and avoid social situations.

What are the 3 components of Albert Bandura's Social-Cognitive Model?

Personal factors (emotions, traits, beliefs), Behavioral factors (actions, responses to failure), and Environmental factors (parenting, situation features).

What is Bandura's concept of "Reciprocal Determinism"?

The principle that Personal, Behavioral, and Environmental factors continuously influence—and are influenced by—one another.

Describe Bandura's tantrum loop example of reciprocal determinism.

A child with a difficult temperament throws a tantrum, parents ignore him, causing him to become enraged and misbehave more.

What is a major advantage of Bandura's social-cognitive model over trait or psychoanalytic views?

It is more comprehensive because it combines internal drives, stable traits, cognitive improvements, and situational influences into one framework.

Define the "Psychological Self".

A person's understanding of their enduring internal psychological characteristics and self-judgments of competency.

Define the "Valued Self".

The sense of worth a person attaches to their psychological self (commonly known as self-esteem).

In Montemayor & Eisen's "Who am I?" study, how did a 9-year-old vs. an 11-year-old answer?

The 9-year-old (Bruce) listed surface qualities ("I LOVE sports," address); the 11-year-old added internal psychological traits ("truthful," "helpful," "I lose my temper").

How do self-descriptions shift between age 6 and age 10?

From simple global terms ("smart" or "dumb") to relative comparisons ("I'm smarter than most other kids").

Why do Asian American preschoolers include more role terms ("daughter," "grandchild") in self-descriptions than European American peers?

Because of cultural differences in how parents discuss important life events with them.

How does Bandura define "Self-Efficacy"?

A person's belief in their capacity to cause an intended event to occur or to perform a task.

What is required for watching a peer model to successfully build a child's self-efficacy?

Through social comparison, the child must view herself as similar to that peer model.

What is "Global Self-Esteem" and when does it first emerge?

An overall evaluation of general self-worth; emerges by ages 7-8.

What is "Domain-Specific Self-Esteem"?

Self-worth evaluated within specific areas (academics, athletics, appearance, social acceptance, friendships).

According to Susan Harter, what primarily determines a child's self-esteem?

The discrepancy between what a child desires (Ideal Self) and what they think they have achieved (Actual Self).

How does domain valuation affect self-esteem?

Low athletic ability only harms self-esteem if the child values sports; being bad at something you don't value does not hurt self-esteem.

What is the single most important source of social support for building self-esteem?

Feeling liked and accepted by family (parents and siblings).

How does self-esteem differ in individualistic vs. interdependent cultures?

Individualistic cultures (U.S.) base self-esteem on personal skills and interests; interdependent cultures (China) base it on meeting cultural ideals of a "good person".

Why does self-esteem tend to persist over time once established?

Because children choose experiences that confirm their self-views and their social environment remains fairly consistent.

What is "Social Cognition"?

A child's understanding of other people and social relationships.

How do children describe others at ages 6-7?

Focus on external features (looks, where they live, activities) and use global terms ("nice," "mean," "good," "bad").

How do children describe others at ages 7-10?

Focus on inner psychological traits assumed to be stable over time and visible across situations.

What are "Behavioral Comparisons" and when do they peak?

Comparing actions between people ("Billy runs faster than Jason"); peaks around age 8.

What are "Psychological Comparisons" and when do 8- to 9-year-olds use them?

Comparing peers on abstract psychological traits ("Sarah is kinder than Ahmed"); increases steadily through middle childhood.

Define Piaget's concept of "Moral Reasoning".

The cognitive process of making judgments about the rightness or wrongness of specific acts.

What is Piaget's first stage of moral development (under age 8)?

Moral Realism.

What is the core view of rules in Moral Realism?

Rules come from authorities (parents, government, God) and cannot be changed.

What is "Immanent Justice"?

The belief in Moral Realism that any rule violation automatically leads to punishment or bad luck (e.g., falling through a rotten board into a stream was punishment for being "naughty").

What is Piaget's second stage of moral development (after age 8; ages 8-12)?

Moral Relativism.

What is the core view of rules in Moral Relativism?

Rules are social agreements that can be changed as long as everyone agrees to follow the same rules (e.g., giving 4 strikes in baseball).

How does Moral Relativism view intentions vs. consequences?

It weighs intentions over consequences; a child who accidentally walks out with candy and one who stole it both pay, but only the thief is punished.

List Thomas Lickona's key strategies for encouraging moral development.

Require reasons for requests, praise social conventions, explain punishments/advise repairs, teach reciprocity, give chores, base obedience on love/respect, teach values, challenge egocentrism ("How would you feel?"), and involve kids in charity.

Why do young children view any game infraction as "cheating"?

Because they are moral realists who focus strictly on rule breaks while ignoring intent.

Why does the phrase "That's not fair!" persist in older middle childhood?

Because older children's moral reasoning remains egocentric, especially when a sibling receives a privilege.

What is "Self-Regulation"?

The ability to conform to parental standards of behavior without direct supervision.

How do cultural expectations of self-regulation vary?

Hispanic American parents showed less confidence in younger school-age kids' self-regulation than White parents, but most cultures expect 6- to 12-year-olds to self-regulate part of the time.

What parenting variables build strong self-regulation?

Parents' own self-regulation, high expectations combined with monitoring, and high child effortful control (fits Authoritative parenting).

In Baumrind's study, how are "Competent" children defined?

Children who are both assertive and responsible (most common in authoritative families).

What proportion of school-age children have at least one long-term best friend?

Half to three-quarters (50%-75%), lasting months or years.

How does Robert Selman define friendship at preschool/early school-age?

Someone you play with or are physically near.

How does Selman define friendship by age 8?

The peer you like the most (Affection).

How does Selman define friendship around age 10?

Based on Reciprocal Trust (generous, helps, gives emotional support, loyal when "down in the dumps").

What did Rose and Asher discover about 5th-graders' friendship choices?

Kids who said you shouldn't help a teased friend (to avoid being treated the same) had fewer friends than kids who put friendship above self-protection.

How do children behave differently with friends vs. strangers?

Kids are more open, supportive, and cooperative with friends, but also more critical and have more conflicts (they are more polite with strangers).

Describe gender segregation in peer groups.

Self-chosen separation where boys play with boys and girls play with girls; universal across all human cultures starting at ages 3-4.

Contrast boys' vs. girls' peer group dynamics.

Boys: Larger groups, competition, dominance, conflict, compete more with friends; Girls: Smaller groups, reciprocity, compliance, agreement, self-disclosure.

Why does physical aggression decline in middle childhood?

As children learn cultural rules, anger is increasingly disguised and aggression is controlled.

Define "Relational Aggression".

Aggression aimed at damaging another person's self-esteem or peer relationships (ostracism, threats, gossip, disdainful facial expressions).

What are the rates of relational aggression in girls vs. boys (Crick & Grotpeter study)?

17.4% of girls vs. only 2% of boys in grades 3-6.

What biological factor links to aggression in both sexes?

Testosterone (males show more physical aggression across all primates and societies).

Define "Retaliatory Aggression" and state when it increases.

Aggression aimed at getting back at someone who intentionally hurt you; increases from ages 6 to 12.

How does understanding intentions trigger retaliatory aggression after age 8?

An 8-year-old sees a kicked pencil as an accident, but a kid over 8 sees it as deliberate and seeks revenge.

Why do 10- to 11-year-olds need motivation interventions rather than empathy skills for retaliation?

Because they show good empathy on hypothetical situations but fail to apply it during real peer conflicts.

Define "Bullying".

Routine, systematic aggression by a bully against one or more habitual victims.

What are the 6 consistent roles in a bullying incident?

Bully, victim, assistant to perpetrator, reinforcing bystander, passive bystander, defender of victim.

Why do modern anti-bullying interventions target bystanders?

To eliminate peer approval and reduce bullying against historically marginalized groups.

What traits do habitual victims of bullying share across cultures?

Anxiety, passivity, sensitivity, low self-esteem, lack of humor, few friends; boy victims are often physically smaller/weaker.

Define "Moral Disengagement".

The belief that ethical standards do not apply to a particular person or situation (shown by bullies, victims, and bystanders).

Define "Conduct Disorder".

A psychological disorder where social/academic functioning is severely impaired by chronic antisocial patterns (bullying, theft, property destruction, deceit, rule breaking).

Define "Social Status" and how it is measured.

The degree to which an individual is accepted by peers; measured by asking kids to list peers they would or wouldn't play with.

What social behaviors characterize "Popular Children"?

They are positive, supportive, turn-taking, nonpunitive, explain things, consider others' wishes, and regulate strong emotions.

What characterizes "Withdrawn/Rejected" children?

They lack communication skills, retreat from groups, realize they are disliked, feel lonely, blame themselves, and fall into self-reinforcing avoidance.

What characterizes "Aggressive/Rejected" children?

Disruptive, bossy, hyper-reactive, lacking theory of mind/emotion regulation; rejection makes them more aggressive.

How does the link between relational aggression and social status shift entering adolescence?

Relational aggression is admired by ages 11-12 as mature social manipulation, giving aggressive kids high status even if peers dislike them.

Describe "Neglected Children".

Children who are simply ignored/overlooked; neglect is much less stable than rejection and often context-dependent (e.g., a "new kid").

Why can prolonged neglect cause a child to become aggressive/rejected?

Prolonged exclusion is stressful; if a neglected child misinterprets exclusion as aggression and retaliates, peers view it as unprovoked aggression, shifting them into the aggressive/rejected category.

How did the U.S. child poverty rate change from 1959 to 2020?

Dropped from 27% in 1959 to 16% in 2020 (higher than Sweden's ~9% or Canada's

Which child demographic groups experience disproportionately high poverty rates in the U.S.?

Children under 6, African American, Native American, and Hispanic children (2-3x overall rate), and children in single-parent homes.

What are the 3 nested layers of poverty influence?

Family layer, Neighborhood layer, and School layer.

Describe the direct and indirect effects of the Family poverty layer.

Direct: food insecurity, lack of medical/dental care; Indirect: economic awareness causing attention problems, worry, and anxiety.

What defines a "high-poverty neighborhood"?

A neighborhood where 20%-30% of families live near or below the poverty line (affects ~9% of U.S. kids).

What percentage of impoverished children in the U.S. have health insurance?

91% (though high-poverty neighborhoods suffer from fewer nearby providers).

What defines a "high-poverty school"?

A school where more than half (50%+) of students qualify for free or reduced-price meals.

Define "Resilient Children" vs. "Vulnerable Children" in poverty.

Resilient: development is comparable to non-poor peers; Vulnerable: develop problems due to poverty's accumulated stresses.

According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, what is the single most effective protective factor against poverty?

Family protective factors (authoritative parenting style, monitoring, extended family support, school involvement).

Define the "Digital Divide".

Variations in access to computers and digital devices across income groups.

How does smartphone ownership vary by household income for ages 8-18?

Varies very little: 68% (under $35k), 69% ($35k-$99k), and 65% ($100k+).

How does daily screen time correlate with household income for ages 8-12?

Runs opposite to income: 7h 32m (under $35k), 5h 47m ($35k-$99k), and 4h 21m ($100k+).

Why do lower-income children average higher screen time than higher-income peers?

They participate less in sports/music lessons, and kids doing homework on smartphones take more time.

Does screen time by itself cause adverse developmental outcomes?

No; screen time alone shows no correlation—content is what matters.

By what age do two-thirds (66%) of children own their own cell phone?

By age 12.

What percentage of school-age boys organize friendship groups around video game themes?

Common as early as first and second grade.

What are 3 developmental benefits of video game playing?

Improves spatial-cognitive skills, provides a sense of competence for struggling students (offsetting self-esteem loss), and engages students in literary analysis.