Bio Exam 2

End of My Life

Platelets

• They result from the fragmentation of large cells, called megakaryocytes, in the red bone marrow

• About 200 billion platelets are made per day

• They function in blood clotting

• Blood proteins called thrombin and fibrinogen create clots by forming fribrin threads that catch RBCs

How do platelets clot blood

1. Blood vessel is punctured

2. platelets congregrate and form a plug

3. platelets and damaged tissues cells released prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions

4. Fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells

Red Blood Cell Functions

• Contain hemogloblin and prevents fluctutation in ph

• Transports oxygen O2 from your lungs to your bodys tissues and carry carbon dioxide CO2 from body tissues back to the lungs so it can leave the body

White Blood Cells Functions

• Protect your body from infections, illnesses, and foreign invaders, like bacteria, viruses, and fungi

What terminology can help you understand ABO blood typing

Antigen - A foreign substance, often a polysaccharide or a protein, that stimulates an immune response

Antibody - a protein made in response to an antigen in the body which binds specifically to that antigen

Blood Transfusion - The transfer of blood from one individual into another individual

Type A blood what they give/recieve

A+

A+, AB+

A+, A-, O+, O-

A-

A+, A-, AB+, AB-

A-, O-

Type B blood what they give/ receive

B-

B+, B-, AB+, AB-

B-, O-

B+

B+, AB+

B+, B-, O+, O-

Type AB blood what they give/recieve

AB-

AB+, AB-

AB-, A-, B-, O-

AB+

AB+ only

Everyone (Universal Recipient)

Type O blood what they give/recieve

O-

Everyone (Universal Donor)

O-

O+

O+, A+, B+, AB+

O+, O-

How can you determine is blood types are compatible

• First consider the antigens found on the blood transfusion donors RBC

• Second, consider the antibodies found in the recipients blood

• If the antibodies in recipients blood can recognize the antigens on the donors RBCs, then the blood will agglutinate-clump-and cause rejection

Where are the antigens of ABO blood

On the red blood cell membrane

Where are the antibodies for ABO blood?

Antibodies are present in the plasma

Rh Factor

An inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells, determines whether your blood is positive or negative

What happens if an RH- mother has a RH+ baby?

Can result in hemolytic disease of the fetus, blood mixing can occur and the destruction of red blood cells causes low blood count and oxygen delivery issues

What are the main functions of the digestive system?

Ingestion - Intake of the food via mouth

Digestion - Mechanically (chewing food or churning in stomach ) or chemically (stomach acids, and enzymes) to break down food

Movement - food must be moved along the GI tract in order to fulfill all functions

Absorbtion - Movement of nutrients across the GI tract wall to be delivered to cells via the blood

Elimination - Removal of indigestible molecules

The 4 Layers that make up the GI tract (elementary tract)

• Mucosa - Innermost layer that produces mucus to protect the lining and also produces mucus to protect the lining and also produces digestive enzymes

• Submucosa - 2nd layer of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves

• Muscularis Extona- 3rd layer made of 2 layers of smooth muscle that move good along the GI tract

• Serosa - Outer lining that is part of the peritone

Where does Carbohydrate digestion begin?

In the mouth

Where does Protein digestion begin?

In the stomach

Where does Lipid digestion begin?

In the small intestine

Accessory Organs (Not include in the digestive system)

• Salivary Glands - Secrete saliva which contains digestive enzyme for carbohydrates

• Liver - Major metabolic organ: processess and stores nutrients: produces bile for emulsification of fats

• Galbladder - Stores bile from the liver: sends it to the small intestine

• Pancreas - Produces pancreatic juice: contains digestive enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine: produces insulin and secretes it into the blood after eating

Digestive Tract Organs

• Mouth - Teeth chew food: tongue tastes and pushes food for chewing and swallowing

• Pharynx - Passageway where food is swallowed

• Esophagus - Passageway where peristalis pushes food to the stomach

• Stomach - Secretes acid and digestive enzymes for protein: churns, mixing food with secretions: and sends chyme to small intestine

• Small intestine - Mixes chyme with digestive enzymes for final breakdown: absorbs nutrient molecules into the body: secretes digestive hormones into the blood. Largest part of elementary track, and where all absorbtion takes place

• Large intestine - Absorbs water and salt to form feces

• Rectum - Stores and regulates elimination of feces

• Anus

What is the pathway that food follows?

mouth → pharynx → esophogus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus

Mouth

• Three pairs that salivary glands, are the Parotid, Sublingual, Submandibular. It secretes salivary amylase that begins carbohydrate digestion.

• Tonsils at the back of the mouth are lymphatic tissues, important in fighting disease.

• The mouth contains teeth that begins the mechanical breakdown of food.

• The tongue is covered in taste buds and also assists in the mechanical breakdown and movement of food.

• The tongue forms a bolus (mass of chewed food) and moves it towards the pharynx

The Pharynx and Esophagus

• Pharynx - Is a cavity between the mouth and esophagus that serves as a passageway for food (and air)

• Esophagus - Is a long, muscular tube that carries food to the stomach

How do we swallow food?

• Voluntary Phase - When food is being swallowed from the mouth into the pharynx, this is a voluntary act

• Involuntary Phase - Once the food is in the pharynx, swallowing becomes a reflex. The epiglottis covers the voice box to make sure the food is routed into the esophagus. Food moves down the esophagus through peristalsis (rhythmic contraction)

Stomach

• Functions to store food, start digestion of proteins, and control movement of chyme into the small intestine

• The stomach is J-shaped organ with a thick wall.

• There are 3 layers of muscle in the muscularis and layer of the stomach wall to help in mechanical digestion and allow it to stretch.

• The mucosa layer has deep folds calle rugae, and gastric pits that into gastric glands that secrete gastric juice.

The small intestine

• Averages 6m (18 ft) in length.

• Enzymes are secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine digest carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.

• Biles (produced in the liver) is secreted by the gallbladder into the small intestine to emulsify fats.

• The absorption of digested food depends on the large surface area created by numerous villi (finger-like projections) and microvilli

• Amino acids and sugars enter the capillaries while fatty acids and glycerol enter the lacteal (small lymph vessels)

Caecum and Appendix

• Caecum - A large, pouch-like blind sac that forms the very first segment of the large intestine. Receives chyme and mixes with bacteria to begin feces formation

• Appendix - A thin, worm-like, blind-ended tube that hangs directly off the base of the cecum.Acts as a "safe house" for beneficial gut bacteria to reboot the digestive tract after illness, and aids in mucosal immunity.

Carbohydrate Digestion

• Begins in mouth

• Polysaccharides, simple sugars

• Carbohydrate→pancreatic amylase → Maltase (disaccharides) → Glucose (monosaccharides)→blood capillary

Protein Digestion

• Begins in stomach (Pepsin)

• Made up of a long polypeptide chain

• Protein →Trypsin→peptides→peptidase→amino acids→ blood capillary

Fat Digestion

• Begins in the small intestine

• Bile salts + fat globule → emulsification droplets →lipase → monoglycerides and free fatty acids → chylomicron→ lymphatic capillary

Carbohydrate Digestion Results In

• Salivary Amylase = Starch + H2O → Maltose

• Pancreatic Amylase = Starch +H2O → Maltose

• Maltase = Maltose + H2O → glucose + glucose

• Lactase = Lactose + H2O → glucose + galactose

Protein Digestion Results In

• Peptidases = Peptide + H2O → amino acids

• Pepsin = Protein + H2O → Peptides

• Trypsin = Protein +H2O → Peptides

Nucleic Acid Digestion Results In

• Nuclease = RNA and DNA + H2O → nucleotides

• Nucleosidases = Nucelotide + H2O → base + sugar + phosphate

What do triglycerides result in

Monoglycerides and free fatty acids

Lacteal

A lymphatic capillary located in the center of each villus in the small intestine that absorb dietary lipids and fat-soluble vitamins

What structure prevents the entry of food into the windpipe

• The epiglottis is the leaf-shaped flap of elastic cartilage that prevents food and liquids from entering the windpipe

• Remains upright while at rest to allow breath into the lungs,

• As you swallow, your larynx moves upward and forward, and the base of your tongue pushes the epiglottis backward

• This movement forces the epiglottis to fold down like a lid over the entrance of the larynx (the glottis), safely directing food and liquids backward into the esophagus and stomach instead of the airway.

Rugae

A series of anatomical folds, ridges, or wrinkles in the mucous membranes of internal organs that allow for expansion, flexibility, and increased surface area.

Plicae

A fold in the membrane that protects your knee joint

Pancreas

• Fish shaped spongy organ behind the stomach

• Functions of the pancreas

• 1. Secretes enzymes into the small intestine. Trypsin digests proteins, Lipase digests fats, and Pancreatic Amylase digests carbohydrates

• 2. Secretes bicarbonate into the small intestine to neutralize stomach acids

• 3. Secretes insulin into the blood to keep the blood sugar levels under control

The Liver

• Is a large metabolic organ that lies under the diaphragm and is made of 100,000 lobules.

• It filters blood from the GI tract, thus acting to remove poisons and detoxify the blood.

• The liver removes iron, vitamins A,D,E,K and B12 from the blood and stores them

• It stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it down to help retain blood glucose levels.

• Makes plasma proteins and helps regulate cholesterol levels by making bile salts

Liver and Gallbladder

• Liver creates bile that is then stores in the gallbladder to be secreted into the small intestine to emulsify fats.

• The liver also breaks down hemogloblin

The large intestine

• Includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal

• It is larger in diameter but shorter than the small intestine, the cecum has a projection known as the appendix that may play a role in fighting infections

• Functions to: absorb water to prevent dehydration. absorb vitamin (B complex and K) produced by the intestinal flora.

• Form and rid the body of feces through anus

Bolus

The small, rounded mass of chewed food mixed with saliva that you swallow from your mouth down the esophagus.

Chyme

The thick, soupy, semi-fluid mixture of food and stomach acids created after the stomach breaks it down.

Chyle

The milky fluid formed in the small intestine when chyme mixes with bile and digestive juices to absorb fats.

Feces

The leftover waste product that passes through the large intestine and exits the body.

The 4 Macro Molecules

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic Acids

What is the readily avaible source of energy for us?

Glucose, is a form of glycogen broken down

Cellulose

• a complex carbohydrate and organic polymer that provides structural support to plant walls

• functions as an insoluble dietary fiber that aids digestion

Carbohydrates

• Are sugars or polysaccharides that are digested into the simple sugars which are and important energy source.

• Refined grains should be minimized in the diet because fiber and vitamins are removed (i.e. white bread, cake, and cookies.)

• Complex carbohydrates are recommended as a good source of vitamins and minerals (i.e. beans, whole-grain products, nuts, and fruits)

Proteins

• Digested into 20 different amino acids which are used to produce cellular proteins

• Essential amino acids are the 8 amino acids that must be attained through the diet

• Complete proteins that have all essential amino acids are usually derived from animals such as meat and dairy.

• Nonanimal sources of complete proteins are tofu, soymilk, and other processed foods from soybeans

What happens when someone is protein deficiant?

Your body begins to break down skeletal muscle, and muscle tissue to source needed amino acids

Lipids

• Include fats, oil, and cholesterol.

• Saturated fat (usually of animal origin) are usually solid at room temp. While unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temp.

• Essential fatty acids are ones that must be ingested; they include linoleic acid and linolenic acid (these can only be found in polyunsaturated oils such as corn and safflower)

Minerals

• The body contains > 5g of each major mineral and < 5g of each trace mineral

• Major minerals make up components of cells, body fluids, and tissues (i.e. calcium)

• Minor minerals are components of larger molecules (i.e. iron in hemogloblin)

• A varied and complete diet usually provides necessary minerals

Calcium

• Needed to make bone, nerve, and impulse conduction, and muscle contraction.

• 1,000 mg/day are recommended to keep bones healthy early in life and 1,300 mg/day after menopausal age.

• Vitamin D is needed with calcium to prevent bone loss (Osteoporosis)

Sodium

• Sodium is needed for regulating water balance.

• 500 mg/day is the recommended amount (On average each American takes in 4,000-4,700 mg/day)

• Sodium can increase hypertension in people who already have it

Fat soluable vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E, K

Good sources of Vitamin A, and D

• Vitamin A - Deep yellow/orange and leafy green veggies, fruits, cheese, whole milk, butter, eggs

• Vitamin D - Milk fortified with vitamin D, fish liver oil, also made in the skin when exposed to the sun

Good source of Vitamin B, and C

• Vitamin B - Whole grain cereals, bananas, beans, poultry, nuts, leafy green veggies

• Vitamin C- Citrus fruits, leafy green veggies, tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage

Water Soluable Vitamins

C, and B

Vitamin A, and D deficiancy

• Vitamin A - Night blindess, impaired growth of bones and teeth

• Vitamin D - Rickets, decalcification and weakening of the bones

Vitamin B, and C deficiancy

• Vitamin B - Rarely, convlusions, vomiting, seborrhea, and muscular weakness

• Vitamin C - Scurvy, delayed wound healing, infection

Vitamin E, and K deficiancy

• Vitamin E - Diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fatigue, muscle weakness

• Vitamin K - Easy bruising, and bleeding

Good Cholesterol

• High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) also known as the good cholesterol because it carries cholesterol to the liver where it is converted into bile salts.

• Trans-fatty acids are made by hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids for commerical products and may reduce the ability to clear cholesterol from the bloodstream

Bad Cholesterol

• CVD is often a result of arteries blocked by plaque made of cholesterol and unsaturated fats

• Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) also known as bad cholesterol because it carries cholesterol from the liver to the cells

• LDL is increased by saturated fats and decreased by unsaturated fats

When an area on an artery wall weakens and begins to expand like a balloon due to blood pressure

An aneurysm

What is the number one killer disease of man kind?

Heart disease (specifically ischaemic heart disease or coronary artery disease)

Arteries

• Carry blood away from the heart, to the tissues, and their walls have three layers

• Blood pressure is defined as the force of blood pushing against the walls of your arteries

• Blood Pressure is highest

• Arteries branch out to form arterioles

• Tunica Interna - Thick inner epithelium

• Tunica Media - Thick smooth muscle layer

• Tunica Externa - Outer connective tissue

Arterioles

• Are small arteries that regulate blood pressure

• They branch out

• They regulate the blood pressure and control how much blood is supplied to any organ

Capillaries

• Microscopic vessels between aterioles and venules and connect them together

• Made of one layer of epithial tissue

• Form capillarie beds of vessels where exchange with body cells occurs

• Combined large surface area

Veins

• Branches of venules come to form veins

• Carry blood away from the heart

• The lumin is much larger

• Veins that carry blood against gravity have valves to keep blood flowing towards the heart

• Ensure the blood only flows one way

• Most veins carry deoxygenated blood

• Have a much thinner smooth muscle layer

• Have valves

• Lowest blood pressure

Venules

• Venules are small veins that receive blood from the capallaries

Anatomy of the Heart

• Large, muscular organ consisting of mostly cardiac tissue and the myocardium

• Surrounded by a sac called the pericardium

• Consists of 2 sides, right and left, seperated by a septum

• Consists of 4 chambers - 2 atria and 2 ventricles

• 2 sets of valves - semilunar valves and atrioventricular valves (AV)

• Valves produce the lub, dub sounds of the heartbeat

Blood vessels that bring blood to the heart

• Superior Vena Cava - Brings oxygen-poor blood from the the upper body, head, neck, arms, and chest to the heart

• Inferior Vena Cava - Brings oxygen-poor blood from the lower body, trunk, and legs, to the heart

• Pulmonary veins - Bring oxygen-rich blood from your lungs into your left atrium

Internal Anatomy of the Heart

The Upper chambers are called: Atria

The Lower chambers are called: Ventricles

• Right Atrium - Receives deoxygenated blood, and then goes through the atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve into the right ventricle

• Left Atrium - Recieves oxygenated blood, and then atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve and then into the left ventricle

• Both recieve blood from the pulmonary veins

• When the ventricles contract, that is when the valves close

Pulmonary Trunk

• From the left ventricle goes into the pulmonary trunk, into the semilunar valves, from there the blood is distributed into through the pulmonary veins

Aorta

• The main largest artery in the human body

• Aortic root - The base attached to the left ventricle of the heart, housing the aortic valve and cornory artery openings.

• Ascending arorta - The segment curving upward from the heart

• Aortic Arch - The cane-like bend at the top that branches into vessels supplying the head, neck, and arms

How does blood flow through the heart? (Conduction system)

• Inferior and superior vena cava (1) dump blood into the right atrium (2)

• Right ventricle (3)

• 2 pulmonary arteries (4) that leads to lungs (5) where blood becomes oxygenated

• pulmonary veins (6) bring blood from the lungs to the left atrium (7)

• Left ventricle (8) is large and muscular to pump blood into the aorta (9) and to the rest of the body (10)

• Eventually blood will be pumped back to each vena cava (1)

What is the main pathway of blood in the body?

• Heart→arteries→arterioles→capillaires→venules→veins→ back to the heart

How is the heart beat controlled?

Internal Control

• The SA node in the right atrium initiates the heartbeat and causes the atria to contract.

• This impulse reaches the AV node, also in the right atrium, to send a signal down the AV bundle and Purkinje fibers that causes ventricular contraction.

• These impulses travel between gap junctions at intercalated disks

Left and Right Bundle Branches

The left and right bundle branches are specialized heart fibers that carry electrical signals down the interventricular septum to make the ventricles contract

Purkinje Fibers

Specialized cardiac muscles that form the final branch of the heart’s electrical conduction system

Lymphatic Capillaries

• Tiny blind ended microvessels in the spaces between cells that collect excess fluid (leaked fluid from the capillaries) and turn it into lymph

• Lymph is formed from blood plasma that leaks out of tiny blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues, becoming interstitial fluid, which is then absorbed by lymphatic capillaries

Oxygen Transport

• Moves from the lungs into the blood and is delivered by two methods

• Binding to Hemogloblin - (97%-98%) = Binds to the iron rich protein called hemogloblin forming oxyhemogloblin, each hemogloblin can carry up to four oxygen molecules, Most prominent method

• Dissolved in Plasma (1-3%) = A small amount of oxygen dissolves directly into the blood plasma, which establishes the partial pressure of oxygen that drives diffusion into tissues

Carbon Dioxide Transport

• 68% as a bicarbonate ion in the plasma (This conversion takes place in RBCs)

• 25% bound to hemogloblin in red blood cells

• 7% as carbon dioxide in the plasma - dissolves in plasma

• CO2 is constantly generated by cells in the body, cannot contain it too much or it will cause acidosis, transported from the cells to the lungs, and then eliminate to the from the body

5 Types of White Blood Cells

Granulocytes

• Neutrophils

• Eosinphils

• Basophils

Agranulocytes

• Lymphocytes

• Monocytes

Neutrophils

Phagocytize pathogens and celluar debris, make up 70% of WBC, have a multilobal nucelus, most abundant

Eosinphils

Use granule contents to digest large pathogens, such as worms, or parasites, and reduces inflammation, 2-3% of WBC, have bilo bed nucleus

Basophils

Promote blood flow to injured tissues and inflammatory response, least abundant, have a U shaped or lobed nucelus

Lymphocytes

Responsible for specific immunity— B-cells produce antibodies and T-cells destroy cancer and virus-infected cells, 25-27% of WBC, large nucelus that takes up most of the cytoplasm

Monocytes

Become macrophages that phagocytize pathogens and celluar debris, Largest with a horse shoe shaped nucleus

Amino Acids

• There are 20 different amino acids which are used to produce cellular proteins

• There are 8 essential amino acids that must be attained through the diet

• Complete proteins that have all essential amino acids are usually derived from animals such as meat and dairy.

How do platelets clot blood

1. Blood vessel is punctured

2. platelets congregrate and form a plug

3. platelets and damaged tissues cells released prothrombin activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions

4. Fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells

3 Major Types of Plasma Proteins

• Albumin - Most abundant and important for plasmas osmotic pressure as well as transport

• Globulins - Also important in transport

• Fibrinogen - Important for the formation of blood clots

Production of red blood cells

• All generate in the red bone marrow

• Lifespan of about 90 to 120 days

• Erythropoiten EPO -a hormone- is secreted by the kidney cells and moves to red bone marrow when oxygen levels are low

Macrophages, What type of WBC convert into those

• Are large specialized white blood cells of the innate immune system that engulf and digest pathogens, cellular debris, and foreign substances

• Originate from monocytes

What are the essential Fatty Acids

• Linoleic Acids

• Linolenic Acid

• Both are found in corn and polyunsaturated oils

The Products of Fat Digestion

• Monoglycerides and free fatty acids, along with small amounts of glycerol and diglycerides

What is Obesity? What is BMI?

• When an indivdual is grossly overweight and has a BMI > 30 he or she is considered obese

• BMI is a general guide to estimate how much of a person’s weight is due to adipose tissue