Weimar Germany (1918–1933) Revision

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the establishment, crises, recovery, and collapse of Weimar Germany and the rise of Adolf Hitler.

Friedrich Ebert

Leader of the SPD who became the leading figure in the new German government after Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November 1918.

Weimar Constitution (Strengths)

Established Germany as a democratic republic featuring universal suffrage for men and women over 20, an elected Reichstag, an elected President serving a seven-year term, and guaranteed civil rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system under the Weimar Constitution where parties gained seats in proportion to their percentage of the vote (e.g., $10\%$ of votes equalled approximately $10\%$ of Reichstag seats), leading to numerous parties, coalition governments, and political instability.

Article 48

A constitutional emergency provision that gave the President the power to issue decrees without parliamentary consent, later exploited by Adolf Hitler to dismantle democracy.

Treaty of Versailles (Territorial Losses)

Treaty provisions forcing Germany to cede Alsace-Lorraine to France, Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, Northern Schleswig to Denmark, the Polish Corridor to Poland, place the Saar under League of Nations control, make Danzig a Free City, and surrender all overseas colonies.

Treaty of Versailles (Military Restrictions)

Military clauses reducing the German army to $100{,}000$ men, prohibiting conscription, tanks, military aircraft, and submarines, limiting the navy, and ordering the demilitarisation of the Rhineland.

Article 231

The War Guilt Clause of the Treaty of Versailles, which forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the First World War and justified reparations payments.

Spartacist Revolt

A January 1919 communist uprising in Berlin led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht attempting a communist revolution; it was crushed by the Freikorps and both leaders were killed.

Freikorps

Right-wing paramilitary units composed of former soldiers that crushed the Spartacist Revolt in January 1919 and later participated in the Kapp Putsch.

Kapp Putsch

A March 1920 right-wing rebellion led by Wolfgang Kapp and Freikorps units attempting to overthrow the Weimar government; it collapsed after a general strike was called, revealing the regular army would not defend democracy.

Occupation of the Ruhr

The January 1923 military invasion of Germany's primary industrial region by French and Belgian troops after Germany failed to meet scheduled reparations payments.

Passive Resistance

The German government's strike directive instructing Ruhr workers to refuse cooperation with occupying French and Belgian troops while continuing to receive government pay.

Hyperinflation (1923)

The total collapse of the German mark's value caused by unchecked money printing to finance passive resistance; a loaf of bread rose from around $250\text{ marks}$ in January 1923 to around $200\text{ billion marks}$ in November 1923, devastating middle-class savers and pensioners.

Gustav Stresemann

Appointed Chancellor in August 1923; he ended passive resistance in the Ruhr, introduced the Rentenmark, negotiated the Dawes Plan, and steered Germany into the Locarno Treaties and the League of Nations.

Rentenmark

A temporary currency introduced in late 1923 by Gustav Stresemann to replace the worthless mark and halt hyperinflation.

Dawes Plan (1924)

An international agreement that provided Germany with American loans, reorganised reparations payments, and stimulated economic recovery.

Locarno Treaties (1925)

Diplomatic pacts wherein Germany accepted its western borders, significantly improving relations with Britain and France.

League of Nations (1926 Entry)

Germany's admission into the League of Nations in 1926, representing a major milestone in its return to international respectability.

Young Plan (1929)

An international agreement that reduced and reorganised Germany's total reparations payments.

The "Golden Years" (1924–29)

A period characterised by rising industrial production, falling unemployment, Berlin cultural experimentation (cinema, theatre, jazz, modern art), and broader opportunities for women, though undermined by reliance on US loans and agricultural weakness.

Wall Street Crash (October 1929)

The collapse of the US stock market that triggered a worldwide economic depression, causing American banks to recall loans and plunging Germany into widespread business failure and mass unemployment.

Nazi Electoral Breakthrough

The rapid surge in Nazi voting share from $2.6\%$ in 1928 to $18.3\%$ in 1930, $37.3\%$ in July 1932, and $33.1\%$ in November 1932, making the Nazis the largest party in the Reichstag without an overall majority.

Franz von Papen

A conservative politician who persuaded President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Adolf Hitler Chancellor on 30 January 1933 under the mistaken belief that conservative politicians could control him.

Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933)

The burning of the parliament building for which Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was arrested, allowing Hitler to blame the Communist Party and justify emergency measures.

Reichstag Fire Decree

An emergency decree issued by President Paul von Hindenburg immediately after the Reichstag Fire that suspended civil liberties, enabling the Nazis to arrest political opponents and silence opposition.

Enabling Act (March 1933)

A constitutional law passed in March 1933 granting Adolf Hitler the power to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag, marking the decisive destruction of Weimar democracy.

Joseph Goebbels

The Nazi propaganda leader who coordinated extensive campaigns using posters, newspapers, radio, films, mass rallies, and speeches to project Adolf Hitler as Germany's strong saviour.

Abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II (9 November 1918)

The monarch stepped down following military exhaustion, severe food shortages caused by the Allied naval blockade, and spreading mutinies across Germany, leading to the proclamation of a republic.

Armistice (11 November 1918)

The agreement signed by the new provisional German government that ceased hostilities in the First World War.

Friedrich Ebert

Leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) who took charge of the provisional German government in November 1918 and served as the first President of the Weimar Republic.

Weimar Constitution (Democratic Strengths)

Introduced universal suffrage for men and women aged $20$ and over, an elected parliament (Reichstag), a directly elected President serving a seven-year term, and guaranteed civil rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system where parties received seats in direct proportion to their vote share (for example, $10\%$ of votes yielded approximately $10\%$ of seats), causing fragmented parliaments and unstable coalition governments.

Article 48

An emergency constitutional clause empowering the President to pass laws by decree without the consent of the Reichstag, which later enabled the subversion of parliamentary democracy.

Treaty of Versailles (Territorial Losses)

Stripped Germany of Alsace-Lorraine (to France), Eupen-Malmedy (to Belgium), Northern Schleswig (to Denmark), the Polish Corridor (to Poland), placed the Saar under League of Nations supervision, declared Danzig a Free City, and confiscated all overseas colonies.

Treaty of Versailles (Military Restrictions)

Capped the German army at $100{,}000$ men, abolished conscription, banned tanks, military aircraft, and submarines, heavily restricted naval vessels, and demilitarised the Rhineland.

Article 231 (War Guilt Clause)

The clause in the Treaty of Versailles requiring Germany to accept sole moral responsibility for initiating the First World War, serving as the legal justification for demanding reparations.

Spartacist Revolt (January 1919)

An armed communist uprising in Berlin led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht aiming to trigger a socialist revolution, which was violently suppressed by the Freikorps.

Freikorps

Right-wing paramilitary units composed of demobilised First World War soldiers who fought communist insurgents and later participated in anti-republican plots.

Kapp Putsch (March 1920)

A right-wing coup attempt led by civil servant Wolfgang Kapp and Freikorps units against the Weimar government; the regular army refused to fire on the rebels, but the revolt collapsed after a nationwide general strike.

Significance of the Kapp Putsch

Demonstrated that the Weimar government could not rely on the regular German military to defend democracy against right-wing nationalist rebellions.

Occupation of the Ruhr (January 1923)

The military takeover of Germany's vital industrial heartland by French and Belgian forces after Germany defaulted on reparations deliveries.

Passive Resistance (1923)

A strike policy enacted by the German government directing Ruhr workers not to cooperate with French and Belgian forces while continuing to receive state wages.

Hyperinflation (1923)

The catastrophic depreciation of the German mark brought on by mass money printing to fund Ruhr passive resistance; the price of a single loaf of bread surged from around $250\text{ marks}$ in January 1923 to approximately $200\text{ billion marks}$ by November 1923.

Economic Losers of Hyperinflation

Middle-class citizens with fixed savings, bondholders, and pensioners whose life savings were wiped out completely.

Economic Beneficiaries of Hyperinflation

Borrowers and businesses who cleared their mortgages and loans using worthless currency, alongside select property owners.

Gustav Stresemann's Initial Actions (1923)

Called off passive resistance in the Ruhr, brought workers back to work, and introduced the Rentenmark to stabilise the national currency.

Rentenmark (1923)

A temporary emergency currency issued under Gustav Stresemann backed by German agricultural and industrial land to halt hyperinflation.

Dawes Plan (1924)

An international agreement that restructured German reparations payments and provided substantial loans from the United States to kick-start economic recovery.

Locarno Treaties (1925)

Pacts in which Germany voluntarily accepted its western boundaries with France and Belgium, paving the way for improved international relations.

League of Nations Entry (1926)

Germany's official accession as a permanent Council member, confirming its return to great-power status and diplomatic respectability.

Young Plan (1929)

An international agreement that lowered Germany's total reparations debt and lengthened the payment schedule.

Cultural Experimentation in the "Golden Years"

A period between 1924 and 1929 where Berlin flourished with innovative modernist art, avant-garde theatre, cinema, jazz music, literature, vibrant nightlife, and expanded social and employment rights for women.

Underlying Flaws of the "Golden Years"

German prosperity relied heavily on short-term US loans, the agricultural sector remained depressed, extremist parties persisted, and widespread public resentment against the Treaty of Versailles endured.

Wall Street Crash (October 1929)

The US stock market collapse that sparked a global depression, prompting American financiers to immediately recall short-term loans from German banks.

German Unemployment during the Great Depression

Escalated dramatically from approximately $1.3\text{ million}$ workers in 1929 to around $6\text{ million}$ by 1932, generating extreme social hardship.

Middle-Class Fear of Communism

As Communist Party votes rose during the Great Depression, terrified middle-class voters and business leaders turned to Adolf Hitler as a defender of private property and national order.

Nazi Versailles Rhetoric

Adolf Hitler gained popular support by vowing to abolish the 1919 peace treaty, rebuild the German military, reoccupy lost territories, and restore national pride.

Joseph Goebbels

Head of Nazi propaganda who orchestrated modern campaign techniques—including posters, mass rallies, radio broadcasts, newspapers, films, and aeroplane speaking tours—to portray Hitler as Germany's dynamic saviour.

Nazi Electoral Progression (1928–1932)

The party's popular vote rose from $2.6\%$ in 1928 to $18.3\%$ in 1930, peaking at $37.3\%$ in July 1932 and falling slightly to $33.1\%$ in November 1932, making them the largest Reichstag party without an absolute majority.

Franz von Papen

A conservative politician who convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor under the mistaken belief that conservative ministers could control and sideline him.

Appointment of Hitler as Chancellor (30 January 1933)

President Paul von Hindenburg officially named Adolf Hitler head of government following political gridlock and backroom political scheming by conservative elites.

Marinus van der Lubbe and the Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933)

A Dutch communist arrested at the blazing parliament building, giving Hitler the pretext to claim an imminent communist revolution and demand emergency powers.

Reichstag Fire Decree (February 1933)

An emergency decree signed by President Paul von Hindenburg that suspended fundamental civil liberties, allowing the Nazi regime to legally arrest political opponents, shut down publications, and suppress campaigning.

Enabling Act (March 1933)

Legislation passed by the Reichstag granting the Chancellor the authority to enact laws without parliamentary approval, effectively dismantling the Weimar democratic system.

Four Core Explanations for Weimar's Collapse

Constitutional structural weaknesses (Proportional Representation and Article 48), violent political opposition from extremists, catastrophic economic shocks (1923 and 1929), and aggressive Nazi tactics paired with political intrigue.

Central Historical Assessment of Weimar Germany

The Republic was not doomed from the outset; it successfully navigated early revolutionary upheavals and stabilised during the Stresemann era, but the catastrophic shock of the 1929 Great Depression dismantled democratic consensus and enabled Hitler's rise.