Endocrine System

Agarose gel

a jelly-like slab used to separate molecules on the basis of molecular weight

amino acid

Monomer subunit of a protein. Amino+Carboxyl+unique side group

Bivalent/tetrad

The association of a pair of homologous chromosomes physically held together by at least one synaptic DNA crossover. This physical attachment allows for alignment and segregation of the homologous chromosomes in the meiosis 1.

Blood

A fluid connective tissue in animals consisting of cells and cell fragments suspended in a solution of water containing dissolved nutrients, proteins, gases, and other molecules

Basophilis

a ype of white blood cell, basophils are the least common type of granulocyte, representing about 0.5% to 1% of circulating white blood cells

Clotting

Coagulation, is an important process that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. Platelets and proteins in plasma work together to stop the bleeding by forming a clot over the injury

Erythrocyte (red blood cell)

the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrates principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues through the circulatory system. RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or fish gills, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body’s capillaries

Hemoglobin

an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen and is found within the cytoskeleton of red blood cells

Leukocyte (white blood cell)

a type of blood cell that is made in the bone marrow and found in the blood and lymph tissue and are part of the body’s immune system

Thrombocytes (platelet)

cell fragments in the blood of mammals that play a crucial role in the formation of blood clots

plasma

Fluid, composed of about 92% water, 7% vital proteins, clotting factors, and 1% mineral salts, salts, sugars, fats, hormones and vitamins.

Blood group systems

blood type hat is determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens on the cells membranes of erythrocytes

Bone marrow

a semi-solid tissue found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones. In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new look cell production or hematopoiesis. It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stomal cells.

Hematopoiesis

The production of blood cells and platelets, which occurs in bone marrow

Erythropoiesis

the production of red blood cells

Blood vessels

a vessel (arteries, veins, and capillaries) in the human or animal body in which blood circulates

Cell cycle

The series of phases a eukaryotic cell progresses through from its origin until it divides my mitosis

Interphase

portion of the cell cycle during which the chromosomes are decondensed and found in the nucleus. G1 ( first gap cycle), S (DNA synthesis phase), and G2 ( second gap cycle) are stages of interphase

Prophase

phase of mitosis during which the chromosomes condense and the nuclear membrane begins to vesiculate

Prometaphase

phase of mitosis during which the mitotic spindle in completely formed

metaphase

the phase of mitosis during which the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate

anaphase

the phase of mitosis during which the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear membrane reforms

Cytokinesis

the division of the cytoplasm to produce two distinct daughter cells

Centriole

A cylindrical organelle composed mainly of tubular protein that helps anchor micro tubules during cell division.

Centromere

a region ( not a true structure) of a chromosome where sister chromatids are attached and to which microtubules bind

Centrosome

a structure near the cell nucleus that forms the main microtubules Arabizing center during division. Each centrosome is composed of two centrioles at right angles to each other. Duplication accursed during the G1 phase and the S phase

Kinetochore

A protein structure that can be found in the centromere region of a chromosome where the microtubules attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart

Microtubule

Protein structure that moves chromosomes around during mitosis and meiosis

cellular division

in eukaryotic cells, the process by which one cells divides into two cells

Mitosis

The process in which nuclear division results in two nuclei, each of which receives the same complement of chromosomes

Meiosis

the process by which haploid cells are produced from a cell that was originally diploid

Chromosome

a discrete unit of genetic material composed of DNA and associated proteins. eukaryotes have chromosomes in their cell nuclei and in their plastids and mitochondria

Autosome

non-sex chromosome, of which there are 22 pairs in humans

Chromatin

Highly organized chromosome composed of DNA and histone proteins

Histone

A group of proteins involved in the formation of nucleosomes that aid in the compaction of eukaryotic DNA

Homologous

A pair of chromosomes consisting of one chromosome received from the father and one from the mother

Nucleosome

The structural subunit of chromatin and is composed of eight histones wrapped with DNA

Sex chromosome

A distinctive set of chromosomes that are different in males and females

Sister chromatid

Either of the two duplicated, identical copies of a chromosome formed after DNA synthesis, acidophilic cells

Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides bases that specifies a particular amino acid or a stop codon; codons function during translation

Anticodon

A three nucleotide sequence in tRNA that is complimentary to a codon in mRNA

Start

The three-base sequences (usually AUG) that specify the first amino acid in a polypeptide in translation

Stop

Those that signal the end of translation (stop UAA, UAG, UGA)

Denature

The process where proteins unravel and change their native shape thus losing their biological activity

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

The genetic material that serves at the code for building each unique organism

Deoxyribonuclease DNAse

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of phosphodiester linkages in the DNA backbone, thus degrading the DNA

DNA fingerprinting

a technology that identifies particular individuals using properties of their DNA

DNA replication

The copying of a DNA strand

Directionality

The end to end chemical orientation of a single strand of nucleic acid In a single strand of DNA or RNA. The chemical convention of naming carbon atoms in the nucleotide Penrose-sugar ring means that there will be a 5’ end (typically contains a phosphate group) and a 3’ end that is unmodified from the ribose -OH substituent. In a DNA double helix, the strands run in opposite directions to permit base pairing between them, which is essential for replication or transcription of the encoded information.

Helicase

Separates double stranded DNA into single strands

Lagging strand

A single DNA strand that is replicated in the 5’-3’ direction(opposite of replication fork)

Leading strand

A single DNA strand that is replicated in the 3’-5’ direction (same direction as replication fork)

Ligase

Covalently attaches adjacent Okazaki fragments in the lagging strand

Okazaki fragments

DNA added to the lagging strand in discontinuous sections

DNA polymerase

An enzyme involved in making new DNA molecules from the four nucleotide bases, using the existing DNA template. They can add nucleotides to the 3’ end of an existing nucleic acid, requiring a primer be bound to the template before DNA polymerase can begin a complementary strand

DNA primase

Are enzymes that must be continuously active and catalyze the creation of small RNA molecules that are employed as DNA polymerase primers

RNA primer

Four to fifteen nucleotides long single stranded nucleic acid used by all living organisms in the initiation of DNA synthesis

Topoisomerase

Enzymes that play essential roles in DNA replication, transcription, chromosome segregation, and recombination; type 1; which makes single stranded cuts in DNA, and type 2 enzymes, which cut and pass double stranded DNA. They remove the tightened coils ahead of the replication fork

Endocrine

Communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands; relating to or denoting glands which secrete hormones or other products directly into the blood

Follicular cells

The major cell type in the thyroid gland, and are responsible for the production and secretion of the thyroid hormones thyroxine, T4, and triiodothyronine, T3

Granulosa cell

A somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated with the developing female gamete in the ovary of mammals

Parafollicular cell

Thyroid C cells are neuroendocrine cells in the thyroid that secrete calcitonin

Parathyroid

Small glands of the endocrine system that control the amount of calcium in our blood and bones

Pineal

A small, highly vascularized neuroendocrine gland that receives and conveys information about the current light-dark cycle from the environment and consequently produces and secretes melatonin cyclically at night

Pituitary (anterior and posterior)

Aka “master control gland” is a small gland connected directly to the the hypothalamus and provides a key link between the brain and the endocrine system; the front part of the pituitary gland known as the anterior pituitary. This part of the gland makes these hormones that control other endocrine glands; the posterior pituitary is an extension of brain tissue from the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary is where hormones made by the hypothalamus are stored and released into the bloodstream

Principal chief cells

One of two cell types of the parathyroid glands, along with the oxyphil cells. The chief cells are much more prevalent in the parathyroid gland than the oxyphil cells. Secretes parathyroid hormones (PTH)

Thyroid

An endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans it is in the neck and consists of two connected lobes

Essential amino acid

Any of the amino acids that humans cannot synthesize and thus must be obtained from the diet. Gametogenesis-the process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes

Gel electrophoresis

A technique used to separate macromolecules by using an electric field that causes them to pass through a gel matrix

Genome

The complete genetic composition of a cell or a species

Hormone

Any member of a class signaling molecules in multicellular organisms, that are transported to distant organs to regulate physiology and behavior

Calcitonin

A hormones secreted by the thyroid that has the effect of lowering blood calcium

Epinephrine

Aka adrenaline, a hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal glands. In medicine epinephrine is used as a stimulant in cardiac arrest, as a vasoconstrictor in shock, and as a bronchodilator and antispasmodic in bronchial asthma. Epinephrine is found in small amounts in the body and is essential for maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis because of its availability to divert blood to tissues under distress

Estrogen

A group of hormones that play an important role in the normal sexual and reproductive development in women

Glucocorticoids

A type of corticosteroid hormone that is very effective in reducing inflammation and suppressing the immune system

Gonadotropin releasing (GNRH)

A hormone made by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone causes the pituitary gland in the brain to make and secrete the hormones luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. In men, these hormones cause the testicles to make testosterone. In women, they cause the ovaries to make estrogen and progesterone. also called GnRH, LH-RH, LHRH, and luteinizing hormone releasing hormone

Growth hormone

Affects growth and development, stimulates protein production; affects fat distribution

Insulin

A hormone made by the pancreas that helps glucose in your blood enter cells in your muscle, fat, and liver, where its used for energy

Norepinephrine

Aka noradrenaline or noradrenaline, is an organic chemical that function in the brain and body as both a hormone and neurotransmitter that is used to mobilize the brain and body for action. Norepinephrine release is lowest during sleep, rises during wakefulness, and reaches much higher levels during situations of stress or danger

Mineralocorticoids

A class of steroid hormones that regulate salt and water balance

Oxytocin

A peptide hormone and neuroleptics/transmitter normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that is involved in childbirth and breast-feeding

Progesterone

A steroid hormone belonging to a class of hormones called progestogens. It is secreted by the corpus luteum, a secondary endocrine gland that the female body produces after ovulation during the second half of the menstrual cycle

Prolactin

A hormone made by the pituitary gland, a small gland at the base of the brain. Prolactin causes the breasts to grow and make milk during regency and after birth. Prolactin levels are normally high for pregnant women and new mothers. Levels are normally low for non pregnant women and for men

Steroid

A biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. Steroids have two principal biological functions; as important components of cell membranes which alter membrane fluidity and as signaling molecules. Hundreds of steroids are found in plants, animals, and fungi.

Thymosin

A type of polypeptide hormone produced by thymi’s epithelial cells, can effectively increase T—cell numbers; support T-cell differentiation and maturation, and reduce cell apoptosis

Thyroid simulating (TSH)

Stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones

Thyroxine

The main secretory product of the thyroid follicle cells and is converted to the active hormone, triiodothyronine

Triiodothyronine

The thyroid hormone that affect almost every physiological process in the body, including growth no development, lism, body temperature, and heart rate

Hormone response element

A short sequence of DNA within the promoter of a gene, that is able to bind to a specific hormone receptor complex and therefore regulate transcription

Ligand

An ion or molecule (functional group) that binds to a central atom to form a coordination complex

Locus

The physical location of a gene on a chromosome

Nucleotide

Organic molecules composed of a nitrogenous base (nucleobase), a Penrose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and a phosphate containing one to three phosphates. They serve as monometric units of the nucleic acid polymers-deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Nucleotide bases (nucleobases, nitrogenous bases)

Nitrogen containing biological compounds; adenine (A), cytosine(C), guanine (G), thymine(T), and uracil (U)

Purine bases

Guanine and adenine have a fused ring skeletal structure derived of purine, characterized by their single amino group (-NH2) at he C6 carbon in adenine and C2 in guanine

Pyramidine bases

Cytosine, thymine, and uracil have a simple ring structure derived of pyramidine

Nucleosides

Glycosylamines that can be thought of as nucleotides without a phosphate group

Base pair

The structure in which two bases in opposite strands of DNA hydrogen bond to each other

Complementary

Bases pair with each other by hydrogen bonding across the DNA helix; adenine with thymine and cytosine to guanine

Nuclear receptors

A double membrane structure that encloses the cells nucleus

Ploidy

The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, or in the cells of an organism