Comparative Psychology Exam 2 study guide

Why do animals rely on different sensory systems?

Animals use their senses to gather and use information from their environment, but different species rely on different senses depending on their needs and environment.

How do rats' sensory abilities differ from humans'?

Rats are colorblind and have poor visual acuity, but they have an excellent sense of smell. Humans have good color vision and visual acuity during the day but poor night vision and a weak sense of smell.

What are some unique sensory adaptations of owls?

Owls have excellent night vision and are sensitive to black-and-white contrast. However, they are farsighted and cannot see nearby objects clearly. They also have asymmetrical ears, with one higher than the other, which helps them locate sounds accurately. The round facial disc around their eyes helps direct sound toward their ears.

Which animals have color vision?

Primates, humans, and honeybees

How does human color vision differ from honeybee color vision?

Humans can distinguish many colors but cannot see ultraviolet (UV) light. Honeybees can see UV light, allowing them to detect patterns and iridescence that humans cannot see.

Why might the same colored object look different to a bee and a human?

Bees can detect ultraviolet wavelengths that humans cannot see, so they may perceive colors and patterns on the object that are invisible to humans.

How can closely related species or different populations of the same species differ?

They may produce different signals and have different levels of perceptual sensitivity to signals in their environment.

What is sensory ecology?

the study of how animals' signals and responses to signals are adapted to their environment.

What is an umwelt?

an animal's unique sensory experience of the world, based on what its sensory organs can detect and respond to. The concept was introduced by ethologist Jakob von Uexküll in the early 1900s.

Why is understanding an animal's umwelt important?

It helps us understand that animals experience the world differently because their sensory systems detect different features of their environments.

What are examples of animals with unique umwelt

• Platypuses: Detect electrical signals.

• Bats: Use echolocation to navigate and locate objects.

• Pigeons and sea turtles: Can detect Earth's magnetic fields.

What is attention?

the process of focusing on particular information or stimuli in the environment

What is divided attention?

occurs when an individual must distribute attention across multiple tasks or sources of information

How does divided attention affect performance?

Performance on one task can suffer when attention must be shared with another task

What is a real-world example of divided attention in animals?

Fish feed more slowly when they must also watch out for predators because they are dividing their attention between feeding and staying safe.

What is a laboratory example of divided attention?

Blue jays detect prey less efficiently when prey appears in multiple patches on a computer screen because they must divide their attention across different locations.

What is episodic memory (for humans)?

the conscious recollection of past events in our own lives, including details about what happened.

What type of memory is episodic memory?

declarative memory, meaning we can consciously recall and explicitly describe the events we experienced.

who must episodic memory involve

involves remembering an event from your own life and recognizing your personal role in that experience.

How are flashbulb memories related to episodic memory?

are a type of episodic memory involving vivid memories of the circumstances in which someone learned about a surprising or emotional event. However, not all episodic memories are flashbulb memories.

What is autonoetic consciousness?

the awareness that an event happened to oneself

What two questions are involved in autonoetic consciousness?

• Do you remember experiencing the event?

• Do you ‘know’ it to be true that you experienced something?

What is the difference between remembering and knowing in autonoetic consciousness?

Remembering involves the subjective feeling of mentally reliving an experience, while knowing means believing or recognizing that something happened without necessarily mentally reliving it.

Why does subjective experience matter when studying memory?

Researchers rely on how a person experiences and describes a memory to determine whether the person genuinely feels they are remembering an event or simply knows that it happened.

Can someone feel like they remember an event they never actually experienced?

• Yes. This is called a false memory.

• Someone may sincerely feel that they remember an event even though it did not happen to them or did not happen as they remember it.

What is an example of knowing about an event without actually remembering it?

Dr. Chapman was told by her mother that she fell into a pool as a child. She does not believe she personally remembers the event; instead, she remembers her mother's story about it.

Why is being so drunk that you cannot remember what you did NOT an example of autonoetic consciousness?

Because it involves an inability to recall events, rather than the conscious awareness of mentally reliving a past experience.

What is the classic definition of episodic memory? Why is the classic definition of episodic memory problematic?

• The conscious recollection of past events in our lives.

• It relies on conscious, subjective experiences of remembering, which may exclude nonverbal memories that cannot be easily described or reported.

Why might researchers refer to the classic definition of episodic memory as specifically describing human episodic memory?

Because it emphasizes conscious awareness and subjective recollection, abilities that are difficult to measure in nonhuman animals and may not capture all forms of episodic-like memory.

What is episodic-like memory, and why do comparative researchers study it?

• refers to memory in nonhuman animals that resembles episodic memory in humans but does not require conscious awareness of remembering

• Researchers study it because animals cannot verbally report their subjective experiences, so researchers must look for behavioral evidence that they remember specific past events.

What is the evolutionary purpose of episodic memory?

helps organisms use past experiences to guide future actions, imagine future events, and plan for those events.

How did Tulving define episodic memory?

• Memory which “receives and stores information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations between them” 

What is Clayton and Emery's simplified definition of episodic-like memory?

Episodic-like memory is memory for what happened, where it happened, and when it happened.

What is another name for Clayton and Emery’s simplified definition of episodic-like memory?

What-where-when memory

Does episodic-like memory require autonoetic consciousness?

No. It does not require conscious awareness of personally reliving a past event.

What are Clayton and Emery's main requirements for episodic-like memory?

• Integration: The what, where, and when information must be combined into a single memory.

• Flexibility: The memory must be usable in a novel situation that could not have been predicted when the memory was formed.

Why must what-where-when information be integrated into a single memory?

The animal must connect what happened, where it happened, and when it happened as parts of one experience rather than remembering three unrelated pieces of information.

What is an example of a memory that does NOT count as episodic-like memory because the animal or person confuses events?

If a graduate student experienced several alligator bites but confused which bite happened at which time, the memory would not demonstrate episodic-like memory because the details are not correctly integrated into a specific event.

Does someone have to remember the exact date of an event for it to count as episodic-like memory under this definition?

No. Remembering approximately when it happened may be sufficient. For example, remembering that an alligator bite happened a long time ago can still qualify if the what, where, and when information is integrated.

Why is flexibility important for episodic-like memory?

Flexibility means an animal can use a past memory in a new situation that could not have been predicted when the memory was formed. This suggests the animal is using stored information rather than simply following a learned routine.

What are Western scrub-jays, and why are they useful for studying episodic-like memory?

Western scrub-jays are birds that cache, or hide, food for later use. Researchers can study whether they remember what they hid, where they hid it, and how long ago they hid it.

What did Clayton and Dickinson (1998) investigate?

whether Western scrub-jays could remember what food they cached, where they cached it, and how long ago they cached it.

What two types of food were used in the scrub-jay study, and how did they differ?

• Peanuts: Less preferred and less perishable.

• Worms: More preferred but more perishable, meaning they spoiled more quickly.

How was the scrub-jay caching experiment conducted?

The birds were allowed to hide peanuts and worms. Researchers then allowed them to retrieve the food after either a short delay of 4 hours or a long delay of 124 hours (about 5 days). The birds had received some training with the experimental setup.

What did the researchers find after short and long delays during the Western scrub-jay caching experiment?

• After 4 hours: The birds searched for worms because the worms were still in good condition.

• After 124 hours: The birds searched for peanuts because the worms had likely spoiled.

How did the scrub-jay study demonstrate what-where-when memory?

• What: The birds remembered whether they had cached peanuts or worms.

• Where: They remembered the locations of their caches.

• When: They responded differently depending on how much time had passed since caching.

Why was the scrub-jay study considered evidence for episodic-like memory?

The birds appeared to combine information about the type of food, its location, and the time since caching to make decisions about what to retrieve.

What was the main problem with the evidence for episodic-like memory?

Researchers struggled to find similar evidence for what-where-when memory in other nonhuman animals, especially animals outside the corvid family, which includes scrub-jays and crows.

What did studies of rats caching food in a maze find?

Rats could remember what food they cached and where they cached it, but they did not reliably adjust their behavior based on when the food had been cached and whether it had degraded.

What did studies of monkeys find regarding what-where-when memory?

Monkeys showed memory for what food was available and where it was located, but their behavior was not reliably modified according to when the food would degrade.

Why were the rat and monkey findings a problem for the what-where-when theory?

The animals demonstrated what-where memory but lacked clear evidence of the when component. Because episodic-like memory requires all three elements, these findings did not provide strong evidence that the animals met the full definition.

What is mental time travel?

the ability to mentally revisit past experiences and imagine or plan for future events.

What are the two components of mental time travel?

• Past: Episodic memory — remembering events from your own life.

• Future: Prospection — imagining, anticipating, and planning for future events.

How do humans demonstrate mental time travel?

Humans can recall past experiences, imagine possible future scenarios, anticipate what might happen, and make plans based on those possibilities.

Can nonhuman animals mentally travel through time?

Researchers investigate whether animals can imagine future events, anticipate future needs, regret past decisions, and plan for events that have not happened yet. The evidence is mixed.

Why would mental time travel be evolutionarily beneficial?

It could help animals use past experiences to make better future decisions, improving their chances of survival and reproduction.

What is the evolutionary theory of episodic memory?

The strong version proposes that we can remember past events because this ability allows us to imagine and prepare for future events.

According to evolutionary theory, why would episodic memory evolve?

because it improves present or future survival and reproductive fitness, not simply because accurately remembering the past is beneficial by itself.

What is the Janus Hypothesis about mental time travel?

proposes that mentally remembering the past and imagining the future are closely related processes in the mind and brain.

***Janus is a Roman god associated with two directions, representing looking backward and forward in time.

What is the Bischof-Köhler Hypothesis about mental time travel?

proposes that animals can anticipate future events only when those events relate to their current biological drives or needs.

What is the main difference between the Janus and Bischof-Köhler hypotheses?

The Janus Hypothesis emphasizes the connection between remembering the past and imagining the future. The Bischof-Köhler Hypothesis argues that animals' future-oriented behavior is limited by their current biological needs.

According to the Bischof-Köhler Hypothesis, why might an animal prepare for a future event?

It may prepare only when the future event is connected to a biological need it is experiencing in the present, rather than independently planning for a future need.

What evidence from people with amnesia supports the Janus Hypothesis?

People with impaired episodic memory often also have difficulty imagining future events, suggesting that remembering the past and envisioning the future depend on related processes.

What evidence from other psychological conditions besides amnesia supports the Janus Hypothesis?

People with milder difficulties recalling past events may also struggle to imagine future events. This suggests a relationship between episodic memory and foresight.

How are episodic memory and foresight related?

Research shows a strong correlation between episodic memory functioning and the ability to imagine or anticipate future events.

How are remembering the past and imagining the future similar subjectively?

Both can involve mentally constructing an event, including details and a sense of experiencing the event in one's mind.

What developmental evidence supports the Janus Hypothesis?

Children's development of episodic memory appears to be related to their development of episodic future thinking, or the ability to imagine future events.

What neurological evidence supports the Janus Hypothesis?

Brain-imaging studies using fMRI and PET scans show that remembering past events and imagining future events activate some of the same brain regions.

Which brain regions are commonly activated during episodic remembering and future imagining

The medial prefrontal cortex, lateral and medial parietal cortex, and temporal lobes.

What is foresight?

the ability to anticipate future events or needs and use that anticipation to guide current behavior.

Why do researchers study foresight in nonhuman animals?

They want to determine whether animals can plan for future needs or whether their behavior is explained by current biological drives, learned associations, or instinct.

What question did researchers investigate in the 2nd scrub-jay food-caching studies?

whether scrub-jays cache food based on what they anticipate wanting in the future, rather than only on their current food preferences.

How was the 2nd scrub-jay experiment conducted? and what were the results?

1. First feeding phase: Jays ate Food A for three hours.

2. Caching phase: They could cache Food A and a different Food B.

3. Second feeding phase: They were then fed Food B.

4. Retrieval phase: Researchers allowed the birds to recover food they had previously cached.

• results: After repeated trials, the jays changed their relative caching of Food A and Food B in ways that appeared to maximize their satisfaction of future food preferences

What is specific satiety?

the drop in pleasure, taste satisfaction, and desire (wanting) for a specific food as you eat it, while your appetite for other, uneaten foods remains high

*** you don’t like to eat the same thing all the time because you get bored of it

Why did Correia and colleagues argue that the scrub-jay findings challenged the Bischof-Köhler Hypothesis?

They argued that the birds cached food to satisfy an anticipated future preference, rather than simply responding to their current biological needs.

What was the main criticism of the 2nd scrub-jay food-caching findings?

The birds cached roughly the same total number of items, and the change in food selection could have other explanations besides future planning. For example, they may have learned associations between foods and rewards.

What is the broader criticism of using food-caching studies as evidence for mental time travel?

Much of the evidence comes from caching and retrieval tasks. Critics argue that researchers have not sufficiently demonstrated that animals can flexibly use foresight across different kinds of situations.

What does the phrase “laser-beam intelligence” mean? use corvids as an example

corvids may be exceptionally intelligent in a narrow domain, such as caching food, without necessarily demonstrating equally advanced abilities across many different situations.

What is Dr. Chapman's response to the “laser-beam intelligence” criticism?

She argues that the concentration of research on caching does not automatically make the findings invalid. She considers the studies legitimate evidence and does not believe corvid intelligence is limited to caching alone.

What question did researchers investigate in squirrel monkeys?

whether squirrel monkeys could anticipate future thirst and choose a smaller food reward to obtain water sooner.

How was the squirrel monkey experiment conducted?

Monkeys chose between one date and four dates. Choosing four dates meant waiting three hours for water, while choosing one date allowed water access after 30 minutes. Because eating dates causes thirst, researchers examined whether monkeys would adjust their choices.

What did the squirrel monkey study find?

With repeated trials, the monkeys increasingly chose one date instead of four, suggesting they might anticipate their future thirst.

Why did researchers interpret the squirrel monkey findings as evidence against the Bischof-Köhler Hypothesis?

The monkeys appeared to make a choice that prepared for a future biological need, rather than simply maximizing their immediate food reward.

What is the main alternative explanation for the squirrel monkey findings?

Associative learning: The monkeys may have learned through repeated experience that choosing one date resulted in getting water sooner, without mentally imagining future thirst.

What additional criticism was raised about the squirrel monkey study?

If the monkeys truly anticipated future thirst, why didn't they choose four dates and save some to eat until water became available? However, this requires complex self-control and reasoning, so failing to do so does not necessarily prove they lacked foresight.

Did the squirrel monkey findings replicate in rhesus macaques?

No. In four experiments, six rhesus macaques consistently chose four dates, even when that meant waiting three hours for water.

What happened when Paxton and Hampton changed the macaques monkey experiment?

They allowed immediate water access after the one-date reward while keeping the three-hour delay after the four-date reward. The macaques learned to select the smaller reward to obtain water immediately.

Why did Paxton and Hampton argue that their findings on macaques did not necessarily demonstrate foresight?

The macaques may simply have learned the association between choosing one date and receiving water sooner. Their behavior could be explained by reinforcement rather than planning for future thirst.

What does associative learning mean in the monkey foresight experiments?

Associative learning occurs when an animal learns a relationship between an action and its outcome through experience. For example, choosing one date leads to receiving water sooner.

Why is it difficult to determine whether nonhuman animals demonstrate foresight?

The same behavior can result from different processes. An animal may genuinely anticipate a future need, or it may simply learn which action produces the best immediate outcome.

What were the two possible explanations for the squirrel monkeys' behavior?

• They anticipated their future thirst and planned accordingly.

• They learned that choosing one date was associated with receiving water sooner.

What were the two possible explanations for the rhesus macaques' initial results?

• They failed to anticipate their future thirst.

• They failed to learn the association between the smaller reward and earlier water access under the original experimental conditions.

What is the main takeaway about mental time travel in nonhuman animals?

Some studies suggest that nonhuman animals can plan for future needs, but it remains difficult to distinguish genuine foresight from associative learning. The evidence is promising but not conclusive.

What is delayed gratification?

giving up an immediate reward or satisfaction in order to receive a more desirable reward in the future.

How does delayed gratification relate to mental time travel?

It suggests that individuals can anticipate future rewards or needs and sacrifice immediate satisfaction to obtain a better outcome later.

What is temporal discounting?

the tendency to place less value on a reward when it must be received in the future rather than immediately.

What is spatial discounting?

the tendency to place less value on a reward, resource, or consequence as its geographical distance increases.

What is an example of spatial discounting?

Someone might choose a nearby store with a smaller reward rather than travel farther to get a better reward because the distant option requires more effort.

How do temporal and spatial discounting differ?

Temporal discounting involves time (waiting for a reward), while spatial discounting involves distance (traveling farther to obtain a reward).

How does delayed gratification provide evidence of future-oriented behavior?

Choosing a larger, later reward over a smaller, immediate one suggests that an individual can prioritize a future benefit over immediate satisfaction.