Religion: conflict and dissent, 1625-88

What was Arminianism?

Arminianism was a theology associated with Jacobus Arminius. It rejected strict predestination and taught that people could choose whether to accept salvation.

What did Arminians believe about Church worship?

Arminians supported ceremony, ritual and decorated churches because they believed these practices could help bring people closer to God.

What did Arminians believe about bishops?

Arminians supported the authority of bishops and believed obedience to the Church and state should be complete.

Why did Puritans oppose Arminianism?

Puritans saw Arminianism as dangerously close to Catholicism because of its emphasis on ritual, ceremony, bishops and decorated churches. Their fears were increased by Charles I's Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria.

Who was Richard Montagu?

Richard Montagu was a theologian who published a pamphlet attacking Calvinist doctrine in 1625. This caused controversy when Parliament met in 1626.

What did Charles I do about the debate over predestination?

Charles tried to shut down public debate about predestination. This was seen by his opponents as protecting Arminian ideas while silencing their critics.

Who was William Laud?

William Laud became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 and was a close ally of Charles I. He became the leading figure behind the religious reforms of the period.

What did Laud's reforms emphasise?

Laudian reforms emphasised order, ritual, hierarchy and the authority of bishops. They aimed to make worship more formal and reinforce obedience to the Church.

What happened to communion tables under Laud?

Communion tables were moved to the east end of churches and railed off like Catholic altars. This made many Puritans believe the Church was becoming too Catholic.

How were churches changed under Laud?

Churches were decorated with statues, colour, organs and stained glass. Puritans often viewed these changes as unnecessary ceremonialism and evidence of Catholic influence.

Why did Laudian reforms cause Puritan opposition?

Puritans believed Laudian reforms were too Catholic and gave bishops too much authority. They also opposed the use of Church courts to punish ministers who resisted conformity.

What was the Court of High Commission?

The Court of High Commission was a Church court that enforced religious conformity. Puritan ministers who resisted Laudian reforms could be summoned before it and deprived of their livings.

Who were Burton, Bastwick and Prynne?

They were three Puritan writers who attacked the government in print. In 1637 they were severely punished by the Star Chamber.

What happened to Burton, Bastwick and Prynne?

In 1637 they had their ears cut off and their cheeks branded. The severity of their punishment demonstrated how seriously the government treated Puritan opposition.

What did Puritans believe about salvation?

Puritans believed in predestination, meaning that salvation was determined by God rather than freely chosen by individuals.

What did Puritans believe about preaching?

Puritans favoured Bible-led preaching and placed less emphasis on elaborate ceremony and ritual.

What did Puritans believe about bishops?

Puritans believed bishops should not have special religious authority. They preferred greater authority for groups of ministers rather than a hierarchy of bishops.

What did Anglicans believe about bishops?

Anglicans believed bishops had authority in the monarch's name. They supported an established Church with bishops and accepted greater use of ceremony than Puritans.

What did Roman Catholics believe about the pope?

Roman Catholics believed the pope had special authority from Christ and that obedience to the pope and Catholic Church was essential.

How did the Long Parliament attack Arminianism?

In 1640 the Long Parliament attacked bishops and Arminian influence. This reflected growing opposition to the religious policies associated with Charles I and Laud.

What was the Root and Branch Petition?

The Root and Branch Petition of December 1640 demanded the complete abolition of episcopacy. It showed how strong anti-bishop feeling had become, particularly in London and the South East.

How many people signed the Root and Branch Petition?

Around 15,000 Londoners signed the Root and Branch Petition. The large number demonstrated the strength of opposition to episcopacy in the capital.

What did episcopacy mean?

Episcopacy meant government of the Church by bishops. It was strongly associated with the established Church of England and was opposed by many Puritans.

Who were the Independents?

Independents, later called Congregationalists, believed that individual congregations should govern themselves. They rejected the authority of bishops and a single national Church structure.

What did Independents reject?

Independents rejected both episcopacy and the idea of a single national Presbyterian Church. They wanted individual congregations to have greater control over their own religious affairs.

What was the Apologeticall Narration?

The Apologeticall Narration was published in 1644 by five Independent ministers. It defended the right of individual congregations to organise outside a national Church settlement.

What was the Solemn League and Covenant?

The Solemn League and Covenant was an alliance between Parliament and the Scots during the Civil War. It committed Parliament to working towards a Presbyterian religious settlement.

What religious system did Parliament try to establish?

Parliament worked with the Scots to establish Presbyterianism nationally. However, this settlement was never fully achieved.

Why was Presbyterianism never fully established?

Independents opposed the Presbyterian settlement and it was never consistently enforced. Religious divisions therefore continued throughout the Civil War and Interregnum.

Why did religious radicalism grow during the Civil War?

The Civil War weakened traditional religious and political controls and allowed new ideas to spread. The New Model Army became particularly important in spreading Independent and other radical beliefs.

Which religious groups became more prominent during the Civil War?

Independents, Baptists, Quakers, Fifth Monarchists and Ranters became more prominent during the 1640s and 1650s. Their growth reflected the weakening of traditional religious controls.

What did Baptists believe about baptism?

Baptists believed baptism should be given to adults who personally professed their faith rather than to infants. This distinguished them from the established Church.

Who were the Quakers?

The Quakers emerged under George Fox from around 1647-52. They rejected formal ministry and ceremony in favour of direct personal knowledge of God.

What was the Quaker belief in the "Inner Light"?

The "Inner Light" was the Quaker belief that individuals could experience direct knowledge of God within themselves. This reduced the importance of formal priests and religious ceremony.

Why did Quakers reject formal religious practices?

Quakers rejected formal ministry and ceremony because they believed individuals could experience God directly. Their approach challenged the authority of established Churches.

Why were Quakers seen as socially subversive?

Quakers refused to swear oaths and would not remove their hats to social superiors. These practices challenged accepted ideas about hierarchy, obedience and social status.

Who was James Nayler?

James Nayler was a prominent Quaker who became involved in a controversial religious demonstration in 1656. His case became an important example of the limits of religious toleration.

What happened in the James Nayler case?

Nayler re-enacted Christ's entry into Jerusalem by riding into Bristol on a donkey with followers singing and scattering palms. Parliament regarded this as blasphemous.

How did Parliament punish James Nayler?

Parliament severely punished Nayler by having him whipped, branded and imprisoned. The punishment showed the fear of radical religious ideas.

What did Cromwell do in the Nayler case?

Cromwell intervened to prevent Nayler from being executed. However, he could not stop Parliament from carrying out the severe punishment.

What did the Nayler case show about Cromwell's regime?

It showed that Cromwell's religious toleration had limits. His government allowed considerable religious freedom but still feared radical beliefs that appeared to threaten social stability.

What happened to many radical sects by 1658?

By Cromwell's death in September 1658, many of the most radical sects had faded. However, Quakers remained significant and other groups had become increasingly organised.

Which religious groups remained organised by 1658?

Quakers remained important, while Independents, Congregationalists and Baptists developed stronger organisations and formal statements of belief. This organisation helped them survive persecution after 1660.

Why were religious radicals feared during the Interregnum?

Religious radicals were feared partly because of their connections with the army and their rejection of established authority. Their actual numbers and danger were also exaggerated by contemporaries and later writers.

What happened to the Church of England in 1660?

The Church of England and its bishops were restored at the Restoration. This marked the end of the religious changes introduced during the Interregnum.

What happened to attempts to include Presbyterians in the restored Church?

Attempts to create a broader Church that included Presbyterians failed. The restored Church therefore remained strongly Anglican and excluded many non-conformists.

What was the Savoy Conference?

The Savoy Conference of 1661 brought ministers together to discuss reform of the Prayer Book. It was an attempt to resolve disagreements between Anglicans and Presbyterians.

What was the result of the Savoy Conference?

The conference failed to reach agreement over Church reform. The failure contributed to the restoration of a more strictly Anglican Church.

What was the Clarendon Code?

The Clarendon Code was a series of laws protecting the restored Anglican Church and restricting religious non-conformity. Its measures included the Corporation Act, Act of Uniformity, Conventicle Act and Five Mile Act.

What was the Corporation Act of 1661?

The Corporation Act required members of town corporations to take Anglican Communion. This restricted access to municipal office for non-Anglicans.

What was the effect of the Corporation Act?

It excluded many non-Anglicans from municipal office and helped strengthen Anglican control of local government.

What was the Act of Uniformity of 1662?

The Act of Uniformity required ministers to accept the Prayer Book in full and be re-ordained by a bishop. Ministers who refused were ejected from their livings.

How many ministers were ejected after the Act of Uniformity?

Around 1,800-2,000 ministers were ejected because they refused to comply with the Act of Uniformity. This created a much larger body of Protestant dissenters.

What was the Conventicle Act of 1664?

The Conventicle Act banned religious meetings of more than five people outside the Church of England. It was intended to restrict organised Protestant dissent.

What was the Five Mile Act of 1665?

The Five Mile Act prevented ejected ministers from coming within five miles of their former parish or any town. This made it harder for dissenting ministers to maintain influence in their former communities.

Why did the Restoration settlement increase religious dissent?

The Church defined conformity narrowly, forcing many moderate Presbyterians and other ministers outside the established Church. This created a larger body of dissenters than might otherwise have existed.

Why did Quakers suffer particularly harsh persecution in the 1660s?

Many Quakers refused to swear oaths because of their religious beliefs. This could lead to imprisonment under laws such as the Quaker Act, contributing to severe persecution.

How did dissenters survive persecution after 1660?

Presbyterians and other dissenters relied on sympathetic local gentry, regional networks and private meetings. These networks allowed them to continue their religious activities despite persecution.

How did George Fox help the Quakers survive?

George Fox strengthened Quaker organisation through regular monthly, district and national meetings. This helped the movement survive despite severe persecution in the 1660s.

What was the Declaration of Indulgence under Charles II?

Charles II issued Declarations of Indulgence in 1662 and 1672 attempting to suspend religious persecution. They extended toleration to Catholics as well as Protestant dissenters.

Why did Parliament oppose Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence?

Parliament feared that toleration would benefit Catholics and was concerned about Charles using royal prerogative powers to suspend existing laws. It therefore forced the declarations back.

What was the Test Act of 1673?

The Test Act required officeholders to take Anglican Communion. It was mainly intended to exclude Catholics from public office and reinforced Anglican dominance.

What was comprehension?

Comprehension was the idea of broadening the established Church so that moderate non-conformists, especially Presbyterians, could return to it. It aimed to reduce religious division without abandoning an established Church.

Was comprehension adopted?

No. Proposals were discussed during the 1660s and 1670s, but no broad settlement was fully adopted.

How did some Anglicans view persecution of dissenters?

Some Church figures and political elites believed persecution was counter-productive. Some preferred to bring moderate dissenters back into a broader established Church.

What effect did the Treaty of Dover have on religious tensions?

The Treaty of Dover in 1670 confirmed Charles II's secret pro-Catholic and pro-French direction. This increased fears about Catholic influence and contributed to a more sympathetic climate towards Protestant dissenters.

What effect did the Popish Plot have on religion?

The Popish Plot of 1678 increased anti-Catholic feeling and intensified political and religious tensions. It also contributed to the later persecution of dissenters when Charles regained control.

What happened to religious dissent after 1681?

Persecution of Protestant dissenters was renewed alongside stronger royal and Anglican control. Town charters were remodelled to strengthen royal and Anglican influence.

When was persecution of dissenters particularly harsh?

The harshest period was approximately 1683-86. County committees reported meetings being broken up, while informers, fines and detention were increasingly used.

Why did persecution fail to eliminate dissent?

Many local officials, juries and aldermen were reluctant to enforce the laws fully. Public sympathy for persecuted dissenters also increased.

What was James II's Declaration of Indulgence?

James II's Declaration of Indulgence of 1687 suspended the Test Act and Penal Laws. It granted freedom of worship to both Catholics and Protestant dissenters.

Why did James II issue the Declaration of Indulgence?

James wanted to establish greater freedom for Catholics and hoped Protestant dissenters would support him because they also benefited from toleration. He therefore hoped to build political allies against the Anglican establishment.

What were the three main reasons dissent survived after 1660?

Dissent survived because of the commitment of dissenters, support from sympathisers and mistakes made by the persecutors. Together, these factors allowed religious groups to survive despite decades of restrictions.

How did dissenters' commitment help them survive?

Dissenters remained dedicated to their beliefs even when they were ejected from the Church or persecuted. Their willingness to continue meeting and organising helped preserve their movements.

How did sympathisers help dissenters?

Sympathetic individuals, including some members of the local elite, provided support to persecuted religious groups. Regional networks also helped ministers and congregations survive.

How did government policy accidentally strengthen dissent?

The narrow definition of conformity introduced after the Restoration forced many moderate Presbyterians outside the established Church. This created a much larger and more organised body of dissenters.

Why were Presbyterians and Independents more resilient than Quakers?

Presbyterians and Independents had wider social support and stronger organisational networks. They were therefore better able to survive persecution than the more isolated Quakers.

Why were Quakers more vulnerable to persecution?

Quakers were more isolated and were particularly targeted because their practices challenged both religious and social authority. They came closest to being destroyed during the persecution of the 1660s.

What was the overall significance of religious conflict from 1625-87?

Religious disputes over Arminianism, bishops, Catholicism and toleration were closely connected to wider struggles over royal authority and Parliament. Attempts to enforce religious uniformity repeatedly created opposition.

How did persecution affect religious dissent?

Persecution did not eliminate dissent and sometimes helped strengthen it. Dissenters developed stronger organisations, regional networks and systems of mutual support in response to persecution.