ISC 325 Exam 2

Processing Persuasive Comm

Understanding process (AKA, route) as cornerstone to theoretical approaches to persuasive comm

• elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

A comprehensive framework for understanding the effects of a hosts of factors on persuasion - source, message, and receive (elaboration + likelihood)

• Change attitudes toward a specific behavior to ultimately change the behavior

• Attitude formation occurs through a dual process in which consumers process a message relative to their involvement (Central vs. Peripheral routes)

Elaboration

The extent to which the individual thinks about or mentally elaborates on the argument contained in the communication

Likelihood

The probability that an event will occur

Central Route

Processing path characterized by careful elaboration, thinking, or consideration of how a message relates to the receiver values

• messages processed centrally, with greater cognitive elaboration

• Used when audience is motivated and able to think deeply (high involvement)⭐️

• Weigh message quality, strong argument, evidence, and logic

• Leads to lasting attitude change (resistant to counter argument)

Ex: I bought a Tesla because: It’s better for the environment, it runs on renewable energy, good charging network, and low running costs

Peripheral Route

Processing path characterized by superficial thinking and consideration of factors irrelevant or peripheral to message

• messages processed quickly and easily

• Used when audience is unmotivated or unable to think deeply (low involvement) ⭐️

• Rely on simple, supplemental decision-making rules (AKA heuristics)

• Leads to temporary attitude change

Ex: I bought a Tesla because: He said it’s good, my friend drives it, and I like the color grey!

-going with the majority ratings (Oprah’s book club 5 stars - must be good)

Peripheral route - with Heuristic (mental shortcut “rule of thumb” that allows people to solve problems)

Source Credibility - trusting a message bc its delivered by an expert, authority, figure or celebrity w/o scrutinizing the actual content

Attractiveness- looking to the physical attractiveness of the person, regardless of the product’s qualities

Message Length- assumption that a longer message is more comprehensive or credible

Design- aesthetic appeal of the packaging or the website can act as a cue for quality

Scarcity- idea that something is rare or limited can drive decisions

Mood- person in a positive mood may be more easily persuaded by a message regardless of content

Social Proof- perception that everyone else is doing it or many people agree can be a powerful cue

Emotions- use of evocative imagery, background music or emotional appeals

Reputation- perceived status or reputation of a brand can serve as a cue. People assume well-known, high-status brands produce better products

Factors Predicting the Route Taken

Two antecedents determining whether central or peripheral route is most likely to occur:

• Motivation

• Ability (AKA, Opportunity)

MODE Model

M- Motivation

O- Opportunity

D-Determinants of the Attitude-Behavior Relation

• these associations can influence behavior through:

1.) Spontaneous (automatic) processing

2.) Deliberative processing

Antecedent #1 - Motivation High Involvement (central route)

We perceive the issue is personally relevant to us and has impacts on our life

• engage in issue-relevant thinking

• Recognize importance of considering arguments carefully

• Possibly change attitude if argument is compelling

Antecedent #1 - Motivation Low Involvement (peripheral route):

We perceive the issue is irrelevant to us and has little impacts on our life.

• seeks heuristics to help us decide whether to accept argument

• Process message peripherally, not seeking further information

Antecedent #2 - Ability

The extent to which people have knowledge or time to analyze a message will decide which route they will choose in processing information

• high ability (central)

• Low ability (peripheral)

Motivation and Ability in ELM (Central vs. Peripheral)

Central Path (thinking-logical):

1.) I need a car

2.) The price is great

3.) High Performance

4.) Top car of the year

Vs.

Peripheral Path (cues-fear, desire)

1.) I just need a car

2.) Sexy girls

3.) I can pay

4.) This is the care for me

“Who says It” (plays an important role in persuasive communication) Two fundamental source/messenger effects:

1.) Source Credibility

2.) Source Attractiveness

• both can serve as peripheral cues (heuristic) in persuading audiences

1.) Source Credibility

The persuasiveness of a message is influenced by audience credibility perceptions based on messengers’ expertise and trustworthiness

-two core characteristics of source credibility:

• Source expertise

• Source trustworthiness

1 - a) Source Expertise

Perceived as knowledge or possessing abilities that are attributed to the messenger by the audience

• domain specific

• More effective in ad context

-when the audience is neutral in brand attitude (low motivation)

-when brands present complex information (low knowledge)

Ex: Sensodyne’s advertising uses credibility by routinely featuring an expert, such as a dentist, in endorsing the products’ benefits to guarantee quality

Ex: Gordon Ramsey endorsing a line of cookware, his renewed status as a Michelin-star chef provides expertise in the kitchen

1-b) Trustworthiness

Perceived honesty, integrity, and sincerity of messengers

-more effective:

• when showing audience that information serves their interest

• When providing both sides of the brand information

Ex: Dove launched the r/eal reviews campaign in February 2026 to feature unedited, unfiltered feedback for its Dove product

Limitations

Credibility is not guaranteed and can easily be lost or weakened

• among highly involved audiences - its influence may be reduced, as emphasized by the ELM

• During a PR crisis, such as misinformation or unethical conduct

• Depending on the context - varies across different social situations

Source Attractiveness

Persuasiveness of a message is influenced by audiences’ perceptions of the messenger’s social attractiveness, including how likable, similar, and physically appealing the messenger’s social attractiveness is

-consists of 3 core characteristics:

• likability

• Similarity

• Physical appeals

Ex: Blackpink’s Adidas campaign highlights how source attractiveness - including physical appeal, likability, and perceived similarity with fans - can influence consumers attitudes toward a brand particularly among Gen Z (matching effect)

2-a) Likability

The extent to which the source is perceived as being friendly, pleasant, and likable

-why does this enhance persuasion?

• likable messenger make us feel good which often transfers to the message

• A likable messenger puts you in a good mood, which helps you access positive thoughts about the product the persuader is promoting

2-b) Similarity

The extent to which the source is perceived as sharing characteristics, values, or experience with the audiences

Ex: having a similar name, sharing a birthday, sharing a hobby, etc.

-why does this enhance persuasion?

• it offers vicarious reward, associating the self with the implicit approval conferred by another’s deliberate or incidental possession of a similar attribute

2 - c) Physical Appeals

The extent to which the source is perceived as physically appealing

-why do physical appeals enhance persuasion?

• more likely to pay attention to an attractive speaker

• Source attractiveness can be transferred to message attractiveness

When is source attractiveness most effective?

• under low involvement

• When the source is congruent with the product (matching effect)

• On high-self monitors who focus on image/status in society (than low-self monitors who will focus on core issues and values since social image/status means little to them)

Message Effects

The message (what you say and how you say it) leads to persuasion by shaping audience attitude/behaviors

“What to say” - understanding the messages: categories of message factors

1.) Message structure

2.) Message content

3.) Framing

4.) Language

5.) Emotional Appeals

1.) Message Structure

How to package messages and organize arguments lead to persuasion

-two factors of message structure

1a- conclusion drawing

1b- sidedness

1a) Conclusion Drawing

A message factory concerning the conclusion is stated explicitly or implicitly

• explicit conclusion (vs. implicit conclusion) - generally more persuasive

• Why? - less confusion and greater message comprehension

-the audience does not have to infer the intended conclusion

Ex: anti-smoking campaign:

Explicit conclusion- “don’t smoke” or “quit today”

Vs.

Implicit conclusion- “smoking causes disease and premature death”

• explicit conclusions reduce ambiguity and enhance persuasion by clearly stating what the audience should conclude or do

1-b) sidedness

Message factor that compared the effects of a one-sided message (i.e., presenting only the communicator’s position) with a two-sided message (i.e., presenting both the communicator’s position and the opposing side).

• two-sided (vs. one sided) messages- generally more persuasive

• Why? - appear less biased and more credible

Ex: Domino Pizza’s “Pizza Turnaround”

-award winning campaign demonstrates the effectiveness of two-sided messages

-acknowledged real consumer complaints about product quality: “our pizza crust tasted like cardboard.” “The sauce tasted like ketchup”

• explained how the company improved its recipe

• Increased message credibility by appearing transparent and honest

• Demonstrated that acknowledging weakness can strengthen persuasion

When Would a One-Sided Message Work?

When it is directed to audiences who already agree with the communicator’s position

• Audiences are already loyal to the brand

• Audiences already view the brand as a market leader

ex: Shot on “iPhone”

- A long-running global campaign, Showcases the high-end camera capabilities of iPhones through user-generated content (UGC), Highlights the strengths of the iPhone camera → a one-sided message.

• Reinforces brand loyalty and positive brand attitudes by featuring content created by iPhone users and professional creators.

• ROSÉ'S new music video for "new trick" was shot entirely on iPhone 18 Pro. The new 48MP main camera captured improved low-light footage and impressive depth of field, brining the music video to life.

2.) Message Content

Two primary message contents

2-a) Evidence

2-b) Narrative

2-a) Evidence

A message factor consisting of factual information from a source other than the communicator, used to support or verify the communicator’s claims.

• May include statistics, numerical comparisons, research findings, ranking, or testimony.

• Often involves quantitative information.

(ex) Subaru’s IIHS (Insurance Institute for Highway Safety) Top Safety Pick+

• Subaru ads highlight IIHS Top Safety Pick ratings as third-party evidence to support claims about vehicle safety

2-b) Narrative

A message factor that uses a coherent story with a beginning, middle, and end, typically involving a plot and characters, and a resolution to a problem.

-Persuades by immersing audiences in a story, reducing counterarguing and allowing them to connect emotionally with characters

ex: Have you ever cried when Barbatus, a soldier ant who befriends Z, dies in the movie Antz?

“Narrative Transportation” – Related Concept

Narratives can transport audiences into the world of the story, making them feel mentally and emotionally immersed.

• This process, known as “transportation,” can reduce resistance to persuasive messages and facilitate attitude change.

ex: Airbnb’s “Made Possible by Hosts” campaign effectively creates narrative transportation by immersing viewers in authentic travel stories and allowing them to imagine themselves in those experiences

When Narrative may be more effective than Evidence:

Narratives may be more persuasive among those who initially disagree with message.

• Vivid, concrete stories in narratives evoke stronger mental imagery and emotional responses than abstract evidence.

When Evidence may be more effective than Narrative:

Evidence may carry more weight with highly involved audiences

• → Specific evidence: Easier to remember and retrieve from memory.

3.) Framing

A message characteristic that leads to persuasion without changing the core facts, but through subtle changes in wording or perspective.

• Highlights certain aspects of an issue (i.e., activate a mental framework) through subtle but psychologically meaningful variations.

• Same issue + different framing → different attitude/behaviors

ex:

Positive vs. Negative Frame: “Eat healthy for a long life!” vs. “Unhealthy eating increases the risk of disease and premature death”

Gain vs. Loss Frame: “Save $50” vs. “Miss out on $50 in saving”

Information vs Emotional Frame: "Optimize Your Workspace for Peak Focus and Measurable Output” vs. “Fall in Love with Your Workspace Again”

• Effective framing should consider the target audience’s values and perspectives —not simply the persuader’s own values.F

Framing: Opt-out vs. Opt-in Frame

Organ Donation with Opt-Out Frame (e.g., Austria and Belgium): Individuals are presumed to be organ donors unless they explicitly register their decision to opt-out [AKA, Presumed Consent].

• “You will be enrolled in the organ donation registry unless you choose otherwise. Click here if you do not wish to participate in the organ donor registry

vs.

Organ Donation with Opt-In Frame (e.g., the US and Germany): Individuals must actively register to become organ donors.

• “Please indicate whether you would like to join the organ donor registry. Click here if you wish to register as an organ donor”

4.) Language

Persuasion often depends not only what is said, but also how it is said.

• Subtle aspects of language, as well as paralinguistic features, can convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of words

• Includes speech rate, pitch, volume, and tone of voice.

Language - Communication Accommodation Theory [CAT] – Related Theory

An interpersonal comm theory that examines how individuals adapt their communication styles to match audiences and how such accommodation influences comm outcomes.

ex: “Baby talk” “Speech tone”

• People often respond more positively to communicators who "speak their language.”

ex: UK Library on Social Media

When is certain types of language more effective?

When the target audience is already loyal to the brand (i.e., more ready to comply)

• For brands with a warm image rather than a competent image

• “Warm” brand – casual, conversational, & intimate language (dairy queen)

• “Competent” brand – official and organizational language (chase bank)

Two Types of Emotional Appeals in ISC

• fear appeals

• Guilt appeals

5.) Emotional Appeals

Messages can convey and evoke emotion, often adapted as a persuasive cue

Fear Appeals

A persuasive communication that tries to scare people into changing their attitudes by evoking negative consequences that will occur if they do not comply with the message recommendations

• fear: internal emotional reaction composed of psychological and physiological dimensions that may be aroused when a serious and personally relevant threat is perceived

• Used across diverse domains, including heath, safety, technology, and consumer purchases

• Can even address minor social concerns, such as bad breath

• Explicitly designed to modify potentially harmful attitude/behaviors

Related Theory - Extended Parallel Process Model [EPPM]

• Psychological framework developed by Kim Witte (1992)

• Explains how people react to fear messages

• Often used in heath comm., public safety campaigns, and other fear-arousing messaging

Two Aspects of Fear Appeals (EPPM)

1.) Perceived Threat (How dangerous is the issue?)

• severity: how serious is the threat?

• Susceptibility: how likely am I to experience this?

2.) Perceived Efficacy (Can I take action to prevent it?)

• response efficacy: will the suggested action actually work?

• Self-efficacy: am I capable of performing the suggested actions?

To successfully change attitude/behaviors, fear-appeal messages should: (EPPM)

• present a credible threat

• Demonstrate that the threat is severe (severity) and probably occurs to audience (susceptibility)

• Explain how audiences can reduce/avoid the threat (response-efficacy and self-efficacy)

(Fear appeals are not always successful)

A fear appeal works ➡when it motivates Danger control

A fear appeal fails ➡ when it triggers Fear control

Possible Reactions to Fear Appeals (EPPM)

Based on how a person perceives the threat and ability to respond to the threat, people typically respond in one of three ways:

Danger control: if threat is HIGH and efficacy is HIGH ➡ Protective/Adoptive Response

Fear Control: if threat is HIGH and efficacy is LOW ➡ Defensive Response

No Response: if threat is LOW ➡ no response

Danger Control (EPPM) (threat HIGH & efficacy is HIGH)

Taking protective responses to reduce the threat

• more cognitive

• Control the threat (danger) by undertaking the recommended action

• Adopting coping strategies

Fear Control (Threat HIGH & efficacy LOW)

Taking defensive responses to manage one’s fear about the threat

• more psychological and emotional

• Control the fear (reducing anxiety, calming nerves)

• Activating defense strategies

Fear Appeal (Limitations)

• people engage in lots of risky behavior

• Serving a way to persuade them to change their attitude toward these problems and adopt a healthier behavior

• DOES NOT always have a direct effect on persuasion

• No precise recipe for how to design the optimal fear appeal

➡fear works only if it is used deftly and sensitively

Guilt Appeal

Messages that make audiences feel responsible for a problem or failing to help, encouraging compliance or helping behavior

Guilt: an uncomfortable emotion feeling caused by believing you have done something wrong

• arises when people feel they have not lived up to what they “ought” or “should” do

• Commonly used in charity, health, and social cause ad campaigns

• Reminding people of their moral responsibility

Ex: UNICEF Charity AD-

• guilt appeals are not always successful

• Highlight efficacy by providing a feasible solution can increase effectiveness

• Ethical concerns remain with the use of guilt appeals

When do Guilt Appeals Work?

• induces empathy

• Instills a sense of social responsibility

• Guide individuals into a more receptive state

• Convinces that behavior will reduce guilt, help repair the problem, encourages personal responsibility

➡like fear appeals, perceived efficacy can intensify the message effect in guilt appeals

Guilt Appeals (limitations)

When can they backfire?

• when they exert excessive pressure

• When they evoke anger or shame

• When the problem feels abstract/distant to us

• When audiences feel little personal responsibility

• When audiences are able to disengage from guilt

➡an attitude-behavior gap may still exist here