Unit 3: MEMORY

Unit 3 of Psych

Attention

Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

Levels of Processing Theory

Deeper levels of processing results in longer-lasting memory codes

Elaboration

The linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding

Dual-Coding Theory

Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall

Sensory Memory

Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time

Short Term Memory (STM)

A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20ish seconds

Rehearsal

The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information

Chunk/Chunking

A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit

Working Memory

A modular system for temporary storage and manipulation of info

Working Memory Capacity (WMC)

One’s ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.

Flashbulb Memory

Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events

Encoding

Some info is automatically processed (like your route to your school)

Processing meaning of verbal info by associating it with what we already know. AKA Semantic Encoding: Results in better recognition

Automatically Processed

New/unusual info requires attention and effort

Automatic Processing

Space: While reading, you automatically encode the place of a picture or a page

Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place throughout the day

Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you

Effortful Processing

Committing novel info to memory requires effort like learning a concept from a textbook. It leads to more durable and accessible memories.

Enriching Encoding

Elaboration —> The linking of a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding —> Elaboration enhances semantic encoding

Visual Imagery

The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered.

Hierarchy

Complex info broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to recall/remember something you know, and the feeling like it’s just out of reach.

Misinformation Effect

When an event that someone witnessed is altered becasue misleading post-event information is introduced

Source monitoring

Making inferences about the origins of memories

Source monitoring error

A memory derived from one source is misremembered as another source.

Nonsense syllables

Consonant-vowel-consonant arrangements that don’t correspond to words (BAF, VIR, MEQ)

Forgetting Curve

Graphs retention and forgetting over time

Retention

The portion of material remembered

Recall Measure

Participants reproduce info without any cues

Recognition measure

Requires participants to select previously learned info from a selection of options

Relearning measure

Requires a participant to memorize info a second time to determine how much time/effort is saved by having learned it before

Decay Theory

Forgetting occurs because memory fades with time

Interference Theory

People forget because of competition with other material

Encoding Specificity Principle

The value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

Repression

Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

Retention Interval

The length of time between the presentation o fmaterials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting

Schema

Oragnized cluster of knowledge about a particular object/event

People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas. BUT the opposite is also true.

Semantic Networks

Nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts —> Spreading activation within a semantic network

Sensory Memory

Preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time
Iconic —> Lasts about a fraction of a second. Visual

Echoic —> Sound. Lasts 3-4 seconds

Retrograde Amnesia

Someone who loses their memories from prior to an injury

Anterograde Amnesia

Someone who loses memories from events that happened after an injury

Consolidation

A hypothetical process that invovles the converstion of new, unstable memories into stasble, durable memory codes stored in LTM

The Declarative Memory System

Handles factual info

Memory that you can say

Nondeclarative Memory System

Houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories

Memory you can’t say

Episodic Memory System

Chronological/temporarily dated recollections of personal experiences

Semantic Memory System

General knowledge that isn’t tied to the time that the info was learned

Retrospective Memory

Remembering events from the past or previously learned info

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future

Memory Construction

All memories are reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that did not actually occur

Source Amnesia

Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution)

The Doorway Effect

Event Models are repalced and changed according to the location/situation

Retroactive Interference

A source of forgetting that occurs when new info ruins old info

Proactive Interference

A source of forgetting that occurs when old info ruins new info

Spacing Effect

Do a little bit of something or learn/memorize a little bit of something everyday for around 30 minutes

Pseudoforgetting

Thinking that you forgot something you never learned

Retrieval Failure

Info is there but you can’t retrieve it

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory retrieval is more successful when conditions/cues are present in the same place where you originally learned it

Motivated Forgetting

Have a horrible memory and you’re trying to forget it

Hippocampus

Where memories are reconstructed

Long-Term Potentiation

Connections between neurons strengthen

Problem Solving

Active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not reading attainable

Functional Fixedness

The tendency that people have to only see things that way that they are most used

Mental Set

Using strategies that have worked in teh past to fix certain problems

Insight

Similar to an “aha” moment - Suddenly discovering the correct solution after struggling for a while

Heuristic

A guiding principle used in solving issues/problems (Does NOT guarantee an answer)

Incubation Effect

When you suddenly discover solutions to a problem after a while of not thinking about it

Theory of Bounded Rationality

People are not able to consider every possible choice when making a decision because we don’t have the time and energy for it. Instead, we focus on a few small details, simple rules, and choose the toption that seems “good enough”

Risky decision making

Making decisions under conditions of uncertainty

Availability Hueristic

If something is easy to remember, we assume it happens very frequently (We make judgements based on what’s more available in our minds)

Algorithm

Step by step method that gives you the correct answer. (Guarantees an answer)

Representativeness Heuristic

If something looks like a typical example of a category, we assume it belongs to that category

Conjunction Fallacy

Adding more conditions makes an event less likely, not more likely

Ignoring Base Rates

Where people focus on specific, vivid details of a single case while ignoring general statistical information or original probabilities

Semantic Declarative Memory

General knowledge that you can say

Episodic Declarative Memory

Memories about yourself that you can say

Serial Position Effect

Most likely to remember the first few or the last few of a list

Recency - The first few

Primacy - The last few

Method of Loci

A device where if you need to remember something, you can remember a place familiar to you, and you put a couple of objects into each part of the place so you can remember it