2. The Renaissance Period - c1500-c1700

Name the four believed causes of disease.

Causes:

• Miasma - most popular theory by far. (peaked in Industrial though)

• Theory of Four Humours - popular with general public, but Physicians did not use by 1600s, used patient observation.

• Astrology - declined by 16th century.

• Punishment from God - declining due to Reformation.

When did Johannes Gutenberg invent the printing press?

1440.

Why did the Church's influence decrease due to the invention of the printing press?

Medical books mass produced, not written by monks. Before, only Galen was written, printing press allowed printing without Church permission.

Example of book printed by printing press that changed medical ideas?

Vesalius's "Fabric of the Human Body" anatomy textbook distributed to medical students throughout Europe.

Limitation of the printing press' influence?

Access for only the rich, 90% illiterate poor still believed in humours, old textbooks on humours also mass produced.

Why was the decline of the Church's influence significant during the Renaissance?

It allowed more scientific progress by lifting restrictions on practices such as dissection.

Why was the printing press significant for medicine?

It increased the number of medical textbooks without Church influence.

Why were printing presses important to medical advancement?

They allowed scientists and physicians to publish and share discoveries more easily.

Who was Andreas Vesalius?

Famous anatomist.

What did he encourage?

Human dissection. (He often took bodies of criminals from the gallows.)

What did Vesalius do?

Disproved Galen and withdrew authority of old medical books.

Why was he so significant?

More dissection of humans led to discoveries which stopped stagnation. (Church in his time allowed dissections, but he further encouraged it.)

How many of Galen's mistakes did he correct?

Over 300.

Why did Galen make so many mistakes?

He only dissected animals, not humans.

Examples of the corrections?

Corrections:

• Lower jaw in one part, not two.

• Veins in heart did not lead to liver.

When was Vesalius' anatomical textbook "Fabric of the Human Body" published?

1543, book of highly detailed anatomical drawings.

Limitations of Vesalius?

Limitations:

• No immediate impact on treatment, did not find cure, so stayed the same.

• Heavy resistance, most physicians refused to believe Galen was wrong.

What did his textbook lead to?

Led to William Harvey's discovery.

What did William Harvey discover?

The circulatory system.

Which of Galen's theory did he disprove with the discovery of the circulatory system?

Harvey - Proved heart was a pump, recycling same blood in a one way cycle. (circulatory theory)

Galen - Production of blood in liver from food, used up as fuel. (production theory)

What evidence did Harvey use?

Tied tight bands (ligatures) around human arms, proved blood only moved to the heart through one way valves.

Limitations of Harvey's influence?

Zero impact on treatment, physicians and patients ignored him, continued bloodletting, as theory does not cure diseases.

What was the public and traditional physician’s attitude towards the Theory of the Four Humours by the 17th century?

Most uneducated people still preferred explanations based on the Four Humours.

Traditional physicians still preferred.

Why did the uneducated prefer the Theory of the Four Humours?

Uneducated - made logical and visible sense (yellow bile in vomit or blood leaving body), and offered control (change diet, bloodletting).

Why did the educated prefer the Theory of the Four Humours?

Educated - were taught it in universities to become licenced physicians. If wrong, years of studying and reputation would be destroyed.

Was there any doubt about the Theory of the Four Humours?

Rising skepticism after Sydenham & Royal Society. Ideas start to change, but treatments still stagnant.

Why were treatments in a period of stagnation?

New Renaissance theories offered no new treatments, people had to resort to the old ones.

Which medical theory remained popular during the Renaissance?

Miasma.

How did humanism change ideas about disease? (logical)

Encouraged people to look for logical, not religious explanations, scientists to dissect bodies and challenge old ideas.

Who was Thomas Sydenham?

Key humanist physician, nicknamed the English Hippocrates.

What ideas did he reject?

Rejected Theory of Four Humours and old medical books, moved medicine away from classical Galen and Hippocrates' ideas of humours.

What did he focus on instead of using old medical books?

Bedside patient observation. (He accepted Hippocrates' method of clinical observation.)

What did Thomas Sydenham believe symptoms showed?

The disease a patient had, so grouped symptoms to classify diseases.

What did Thomas Sydenham discover about scarlet fever and measles through clincal observation?

They were different diseases, before assumed as same due to red rash and fever. Noticed behaved differently in body.

What did Thomas Sydenham believe about treatment?

Same disease, same cure, before it was based on their star sign, age or habits.

Limitations of Thomas Sydenham?

Still believed in miasma, didn’t find cures, couldn’t explain why people got sick.

What was the Royal Society and when was it established?

An organisation where scientists shared discoveries and discussed ideas. Est. 1660.

Which king supported the Royal Society?

King Charles II.

When did King Charles II support the Royal Society?

1662, funding.

How did the Royal Society change methods of scientific discovery?

Before - authority of Church.

Royal Society - observation and experimentation to gather evidence.

How did the Royal Society spread new ideas?

Published scientific journal “Philosophical Transactions”.

Name three new treatments of disease.

Treatments: (new)

• Idea of transference.

• Iatrochemistry.

• "Great Medicine" sold by quack doctors.

Name four continued treatments of disease.

Treatments: (continued)

• Humoural - Bloodletting & Purging.

• Burning sweet-smelling herbs.

• Prayer.

• Herbal remedies.

What is transference?

The belief that disease could be transferred from a person to an object or animal.

What treatment was used based on transference?

Rubbing onions on warts.

What is iatrochemistry?

Medical chemistry that used chemical remedies to treat disease, evolved from alchemy from Medieval Period.

Why was iatrochemistry a practical failure?

Ineffective and toxic. e.g. mercury (syphilis) and antimony (to purge) poisoned patients.

Why were apothecaries popular during the Renaissance?

They were cheaper than physicians and could prescribe remedies.

Who needed a licence to practise medicine during the Renaissance?

Physicians, surgeons, midwives and apothecaries.

Name two changes to physicians' education during the Renaissance.

Two changes:

• More medical textbooks at universities.

• Human dissection improved knowledge of anatomy.

How did hospitals change during the Renaissance?

They began trying to cure patients rather than simply care for them, clinical observation.

What happened to most hospitals in early Renaissance? (1530s)

King Henry VIII’s dissolution of the monasteries - loss of hospitals as most were run by monks and nuns.

Exceptions - Few survived eg. St Bartholomew’s Hospital, taken over by council and charities.

What were pest houses?

Hospitals for patients with infectious diseases.

Who punished women for practising medicine without a licence?

The Royal College of Physicians.

Why could women not become physicians?

They were not allowed to attend university.

What is a quack doctor?

A fake doctor with no medical qualifications.

What did quack doctors sell?

Sold "Great Medicines", claimed to heal. (e.g. "London Treacle" - contained opium which numbed them, did not cure.)

Name three new preventions of disease.

Preventions: (new)

• Cleaned streets and drained sewage.

• Tracked weather.

• Changed clothes frequently.

Name four continued preventions of disease.

Preventions: (continued)

• Sweet herbs.

• Moderate diet.

• Quarantine.

• Religion - prayed, pilgrimage.

Name four emergency preventions in the Great Plague.

Preventions: (emergency)

• Forced quarantine - 40 days in home.

• Mass eradication of animals.

• Banning gatherings.

• Moving to rural areas.

Did bathing become more or less popular by the 16th century?

Less popular.

Why did bathing become less popular?

Public baths were linked with brothels and syphilis.

How did people try to stay healthy and avoid disease during the Renaissance? (two ways)

Changing clothes more often and moving to live away from disease (miasma).

Did belief in the supernatural disappear during the Renaissance?

No, some believed God sent miasma as punishment.

How did people still use religion to prevent illness?

They prayed.

What are three ways the local governments tried to remove miasma?

Ways: More government action

• having criminals collect rubbish.

• fining people who left rubbish outside homes.

• draining swamps and bogs.

Why were barometers and thermometers used?

To monitor weather conditions linked to miasma spread. (thought hot summers linked to higher risk of disease)

What is an epidemic?

An outbreak of disease affecting many people across several communities.

When did the Great Plague arrive in England?

1665.

How many Londoners died in one week during the peak of the Great Plague?

~7000 deaths during peak.

What were two believed causes of the Great Plague?

Beliefs: general public still religious

• a comet - omen from God.

• punishment from God - sent Miasma.

Which four treatments did physicians recommend during the Great Plague?

Treatments:

• Wrapping patients in woollen cloths and laying by the fire - sweat out the “poison”.

• Transference - live chicken or pigeon onto buboes.

• Humoural - bloodletting and purging.

• Herbal remedies.

How were herbal remedies used during the Great Plague?

Drunk or swallowed as medicine, applied as poultices, or rubbed onto the skin.

Name four recommendations to prevent the Great Plague.

Prevention of Great Plague:

• Prayer & Fasting.

• Quarantine.

• Carrying a pomander and burning sweet smelling herbs.

• Coins soaked in vinegar to avoid spread.

Why did plague doctors wear distinctive outfits?

To protect themselves from the plague.

What did plague doctors stuff into their beaks?

Herbs.

Why did plague doctors wear leather gloves?

To avoid contact with patients.

What was the role of a searcher during the Great Plague?

Women who identify plague victims and remove bodies for burial.

What quarantine measures were implemented?

Houses with infected:

• red cross painted on door.

• all family members shut in for 40 days.

What is a decree and what did King Charles II order?

An official order made by a monarch or government.

King Charles II - mass eradication of animals, ban gatherings, quarantine (red cross 40 days), hire of searchers.

Which animals did Charles II order to be killed during the Great Plague?

Over 40k dogs and 200k cats, also pigeons. (Physicians placed feather-less pigeons on boils, thought plague would transfer onto birds, confusion of era.)

What public activities did Charles II ban during the Great Plague?

Banned: prevent large crowds from spreading disease

• plays.

• fairs.

• large funerals.

• sport matches.