Psychology 1002

Psych midterm flashcards

what is psych

+behavior

+mind

+example

scientific study of behavior and the mind.

behaviour- actions and responses that we can directly observe

mind- internal states and processes (thoughts and feelings)

ie. we cant measure how much someone loves another person but we can infer how they feel if they say i love you

what is clinical psych

• study and treatment of mental disorders

• scientists that conduct research on the causes of mental disorders and the effectiveness of various treatments

what is cognitive psych

• views mind as an information processor

• examine topics such as concioussness, attention, memory, decision making and problem solving

…studies how unconcious processes influence behavior

what is biopsych/ neuroscience?

• how brain processes

• genes how hormones influence our actions, thoughts and feelings

• how does evolution shape our psychological capabilities (advanced thinking and language) or behavior (aggression)

what is developmental psych

• human physical, psychological and social development over a lifespan

• ie. how do infants develop? how diff parent styles affect the development of children

what is experimental psych

• study of sensory processes (5 senses) learning, perception and motivational states (experimental based)

• often with non human animals

+all psychologists do experiments…

what is industrial- organisational psych

• study leadership, teamwork and factors that influence employees job satisfaction

what is personality psych

• study of human personality…ofc

• core personality traits and how diff traits relate to one another/ influence behaviour

what is social psych

• examines peoples thoughts feelings and behaviour pertaining to the social world (other people)

• study social relationships involving attraction and love, discrimination, aggression, helping etc.

the scientific approach

+what is science

+what is empirical evidence

+what are systematic observations

1. process that involves systematically gathering and evaluating empirical evidence to answer questions and tests beliefs about the natural world

2. evidence gained through experience and observation (also includes evidence from manipulating things and observing what happens)

3. performed according to a system of rules or conditions so that they will be as objective and precise as possible

common pitfalls faced when studying psych/ evaluating situations

…three diff examples

+confirmation bias

+how does scientific approach help

• we often taken mental shortcuts that can serve us poorly when forming judgements… judging based on stereotypes about their physical appearance

• may fail to consider alternative explanations for why a behaviour has occurred and assume only one factor caused it

• once our beliefs are established, we fail to test them further…

• confirmation bias- selectively paying attention to info that is consistent to our beliefs and not doing that for stuff that we don’t align with

• scientific approach makes sure we are objective when evaluating information to make sure its good

how does scientific approach avoid pitfalls is psych

…four examples

• principle of science

helps minimize biases that can lead to inaccurate conclusions

• using instruments to measure responses

• inter-rater reliability- multiple researchers observing one things and compare findings

• using stats

• highly controlled experimental conditions (dependant and independent variable)

in principle, science is ultimately is a self correcting process

what questions should you ask to enforce critical thinking?

• what is the claim or assertion

• who is making the claim (are they reliable)

• whats the evidence and how good is it

• any other explanations possible…can i evaluate them

• what is the best conclusion

what is pseudo science?

• “science” thats made to look like actual science and it attracts believers despite its lack of credible scientific evidence

what are the goals of psychology

1. to describe how people and other animals behave

2. to explain and understand the causes of these behviours

3. to predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions

4. to influence or control behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes to enhance human welfare

…if we know the causes of behaviour and the factors present/absent, we can predict the behaviour…and if we can control the causes we should be able to control the behaviour

what is…

1. basic research

2. applied research

1. quest for knowledge purely for its own sake

2. designed to solve specific practical problem

what is mind body interactios

• relations bw mental processes in the brain and the functioning of other bodily systems

• interplay between psych and bio levels of analysis

nature and nurture interact

what is mind body dualism

+Rene Decartes

+”dualism”

• the belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject toe physical laws that govern the body

• Rene Decartes proposed that mind and body interact

• mind within the brain but the mind is spiritual, non material entity

“dualism” implies that no amount of reasearch on the physical body (including the brain) could ever hope to unravel the mysteries of the unphysical mind

what is monism

+Thomas Hobbes

+british empiricism

• mind and body are one and that the mind isnt a seperate spiritual body

• to monists, mental events correspond to physical events in the brain

• Thomas Hobbes= mind could be studied by measuring the brain activity

…

British empiricism : all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically

what is structuralism

• analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements

• used introspection (looking within") to study senesation + basic elements of conciousness

• …a little too subjective way of testing

… functionalism was birthed

what is functionalism

+compare to structuralism with exemple

• psych should study the functions of conciousness rather than its structure

ie. a structuralist would explain hand movements by how the muscles, tendons and bones operate…functionalist would ask why do we have hands, how do they help us adapt to our environment?

both arent really used in modern psych.. :(

what is psychodynamic perspective

• searches causes of behavior within the inner workings of out personality (unique pattern of traits, emotions and motives)

• Sigmund Freud

• there is a struggle between conflicting forces (impulses and controls) therefor its dynamic

what is psychoanalysis

• process through freud

• his patients experienced symptoms that didnt have a physical bodily malfunction

• so ti must be psychlogical but the patients werent mking up the symptoms which means it was unconcious

• free association- express any thought that comes to mind

• our primitive urges come form our unconcious mind…find evidence through dreams analysis

what is behavioural perspective

• role of external environment on governing our actions

• our behaviour is jointly determined by habits learned from previous life experiences and by stimuli in our immediate environment

ie. Pavlov and his dogs salivating with the stimulus which was paired with food

what is behaviourism

+john B watson

+BF skinner

• emphasizes environment control of behavior through learning

• John B watson

• he strongly opposed the mentalism of structuralist, functionalists and psychoanalysis

• psych should be in observable behavior

…B.F Skinner said “no account of what is happening inside the human body…will explain the origins of human behavior”

• real origins behavior is outer worlds impact on us

what is radical behaviorism

how environmental forces could be used to enhance human welfare (BF Skinner)

behavior modification- focused on decreasing problem behaviors and increasing positive behaviors by manipulating environmental factors

what is cognitive behaviorism

+which person

learning experiences and the enironment affect our behavior by giving us the information we need to behave effectively

…Albert Bandura

what is humanistic perspective

• emphasized free will, personal growth and the attempt to find meaning in ones existence

Abraham Maslow proposed that each of us has an unborn force towards self actualization, the reaching of ones individual potential

ie. pos env = pos inner nature of person ; neg env = frustrate

what is the cognitive perspective

examines the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behavior

• humans are info processors whose actions are governed by thought

what is gestalt (whole) psychology

examines how the mind organizes elements of experience into a unified or “whole perspective”

illusions

• believe that the tendance to percieve wholes, like other forms of perceptual organization, built into our nervous system

what is cognitive neuroscience

uses electrical, recording and braain imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks

-how does brain learning language, get more knowledge, form memories, and performing other cognitive activities

what is the socio cultural perspective

how does social env and cultural learning influence our behavior, thoughts and feelings

types of presence

• actual physical (your in a group)

• implied (dressing for a party where people at the party will evaluate how you dress)

• imagined (driving a car and you slow down for no reason thinking that theres a police car behind you)

what is culture

• social norms

enduring values, belifs, behaviors and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one genberation to the nect

social norms: (unwritten) rules of what behavior is acceptable and allowed

what is cultural psych

how culture is transmitted to its members and examines psychological similiarities and differences among people from diverse cultures

what is individualism

• individualism: emphasis on personal goals and self identity based primarily on ones own attributes and achievements (present in industrialized cultures like NA and Europe)

what is collectivism

• collectivism : individual goials are subordinated to those of the group and personal identity is defined by the ties that bind one to the extended family and other social groups (present in African, Asian and South American cultures)

what is the biological perspective

how the brain processes adn other bodily functions regulate behavior

what is behavioral neuroscience

examines brain processes adn other physiological functions that underlie ouur behavior, sensory experiences, emotions and thoughts

what are neurotrasmitters

chemicals released by nerve ells that allow them to communicate with one another

what is behavior genetics

the study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors

• ie. animals being bred for aggression

• compare behavior of identical twins (same egg) rather than fraternal twins (two diff eggs)

what is natural selection

Darwin

within a species, some members posses specific traits to a greater extent than do other members.

• if an inhereited trait gives certain members an advantage over others..those members are more likely to durvive and pass one these characteristics

• as env change, adaptiveness of a trait may increase or decrease

traits can be physical or mental

what is evolutionary psych

how evolution dshaped modern human behaivior

• human mental abilities and behavioural tendencies evolved along with a changing body

ie. humans started to stand bipedal and then started using tools

what is sociobiology

complex social behaviours are also built into the human species as product of evolution

• ones genetic survival is more important than ones own physical survival

ie. people will seek somewhat different qualities in a mate

how can we evaluate behavior

biological → psychological → environmental and vis versa

what is the biological level of analysis

study behavior and its causes in terms of brain functioning, hormones, and genetic factors shaped over the course of evolution

what is the psychological level of analysis

• cognitive perspective

• analyse how thought memory and planning influence behavior

what is the environmental level of analysis

• behavioral and sociocultural perspectives lead us to examine how stumilu in the physical and social environment shape our behavior, thoughts and feelings

what are the six major perspectives on human behavior

1. psychodynamic

the human as controled by inner forces and conflicts (unconcious)

2. behavioral

human as a reactor to the environment

2. humanistic

the human as a free agent, seeking self actualization

2. cognitive

the human as a thinker

2. sociocultural

the human as a social being embedding in a culture

2. biological

the human as an animal

depression in terms of biological, psychological and environmental perspectives

bio

• genetics involved

• biochemical factors (neurotrasmitters, affecting the transmission of nerve impulses)

• weird biological rhythms in sleep and reaming

psych

• associated with a particular thinking style…pessimistic

• childhood histories of abuse…record of loss or neglect

• develop a pessimistic view (perfectionism, low self esteem)

env

• reaction to a non rewarding env (env gives fewer and fewer rewards to the person)

• as depression ^, people stop doing things they enjoy, making people alienate them= more depression

• darker areas = less sunlight= more prone to depression

what are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry

curiosity, skepticism and open mindedness

(just imagine a detective for the natural world)

what is bystander apathy

when something major is happening (usually bad) people assume the next person wont be as apathetic as them as assume them to help

• the more people, the less likely the individual will feel responsible

example: Kitty Genovese who was assaulted and stabbed to death, there were 38 witnesses

what is diffusion of responsibility

a psychological state in which each person feels decreased personal responsibility for intervening

what are the steps in the scientific process

1. identify a question of interest

2. gather information and form hypothesis

3. test hypothesis by conducting research

4. analyze data, draw tentative conclusions and report findings

5. build a body of knowledge; ask further questions, conduct more search; develop and test theories

what is a theory

+how does research help theory?

a set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to one another

• when research consistently supports the hypothesis derived from a theory, confidence in the theory increases

what is hindsight bias

related past events can be explained in mant creative, reasonable, adn sometimes s contradictory ways

• high school sweetheartts can either break up during a break from uni or get married

what are the characteristics of a good theory

• it incorporates existing facts and observations within a single broad framwork (organizes info in a meaningful way)

• it is testable. it geenrates new hypothesis and predictions whose accuracy can be evaluated by gathering new evidence

• the predictions made by the theory are supported by the findings of new research

• it fornfoms to the law of parsimony. if thoe theories can explain and predict the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred one

what is a variable

any chracteristic of factor that can vary (height, hair colour, age…)

vary from person to person and many also vary within a given person over time

what is an operational defnition

defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to the produce or measure it

• translate abstract concepts into something observable and measurable

explain self report measures

• ask people to report on their own knowledge, belifs, feelings, experiences, or behavior

• often gathers from interviews of questionnaires

• accuracy hinges on people ability and willingness to repsond honestly (espcially with sensitive topics)

what is social desirability bias

the tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than accoring to how one truly feels or behaves

• to fix: use anonymity and/or confidentiality

ie. people will claim to be familiar with something they know nothing of on a survey to make it seem like they know

what is reaction time

how rapidly people respond to a stimulus

what makes a measurment reliable

• they are consistent

if two observers watching the same behaviours repeatedly disagree in their coding, the data is unreliable and of little use

what are unobtrusive measures to gather info

• recording behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that certain responses are being measured

what are archival measures to gather info

• records or documents that already exist

what is descriptive research

• seek to identity how humans and other animals behave, particlarly in natural settings

• gives into on the diversity of behavior and may yield clues about potential cause-efffect relations (can be later tested with experiments)

what are case studies

an in depth analysis of an individual, group or event

• by studying a single case in details, researcher typically hope to discover principles of behavior that are true for people or situations in general

• info can be gathered through variety of forms

advantages to a case study

• when something rare happens, scientists can study it closely

• can challenge the validity of a theory or widely help scientific belief

• vibrant source of new ideas; can be examined using more controlled research methods

disadvantages to a case study

• poor method for determining cause-effect relations

• case study findings may not generalize to other people or situations

• observers may not be objective in gathering and interpreting data (a skeptical attitude = more tests= more accurate)

what is naturalistic observation

researcher observes behavior as it occurs in natural setting, and atte,pts to avoid influencing that behavior

what is habituation

getting used to being tested / watched

• you don’t really know its happening so you stay comfortable where you are

what is survey research

define…

+population

+sample

• info about a topic is obtained by administering questionnaire or interviews to many people

population: all individuals about whom we are interested in drawing a conclusion

sample: the subset of individuals drawing from the larger population of interest

ways to draw valid conclusions about a population from a survey

+representative sample

+random sampling

+stratified random sampling

and example to explain

1. one that reflects the important characteristics of the population

2. used to get representative sample; every member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen to participate in the survey

3. divide the population into subgroups based on such characteristics

ie. if population s 45% male, 45% of participants will be male. then random sampling will pick which males participate

pros and cons of surveys

pros

• can get represent a large sample group

• lots of info about what ur wondering about available, can reveal changes

• pretty cheap and easy to conduct

cons

• cannot show cause and effect relationships

• rely on self reporting…social desirability bias/other biases

• unrepresentative samples can lead to fault generalizations

• very rarely but sometimes, random sampling isnt actually random

what is correlational research (3 components)

+what are we measuring

+important distinction w causation

1. the researcher measures one variable (X) such as peoples birth order

2. the researcher measures a second variable (Y), such as a personality trait

3. the researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related

we are measuring variables, not manipulating them…naturalistic observation

IMPORTANT: correlation does not equal causation (must assume hat both variables have influenced each other or one influenced the other…or theres a third unconsidered variable)

a graph in reference to correlational research

what is rhe third variable problem

interpretive problem where variable Z is responsible for what looks like a relation between X and Y.

as Z varies, it causes X and Y to change. the net result makes both change in unison (positive correlation) but this change is caused by Z, not by any direct effect of X or Y on each other

what is a correlational coefficient

statistic that indicates the direction and srength of the relation between two variables

• ransom from +1.00 to -1.00

• sign tells you the direction

• absolute value tells you the strength (the closer to either 1, the stronger the relation between the variables)

• zero correlation means that x and y are not related statistically (random dots)

what is a positive correlation

higher scores on one variable are associate with higher scores on the second variable

what is a negative correlation

higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores on a second variable

benefits to correllational studies

1. help establish whether relations found in the laboratory generalize to the outside world

2. while they dont show cause and effect relation, can establish whether there is a real world association

3. can discover associations that are subsequently studied under controlled laboratory conditions

4. for ethics, some questions cant be studied in experiments but can be studied with correlational methods

5. allows us to make predictions (knowing score of one variable can help us infer score of the other)

characteristics of an experiment

1. the researcher manipulates one of more variables

2. the researcher measures whether this manipulation influences other variables

3. the researcher attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome of the experiment

what is an independant variable

factor that is being manipulated or controlled by ther experimenter

MUST HAVE at least TWO LEVELS (experimental and controlled)

what is a dependant variable

factor that is measured by the experimenter and that may be influenced by the independant variable

(dependant depends on the independent)

what is an experimental group

a gorp that receives a treatment or an active level of the independent variable

what is a control group

group not exposed to the treatment or received a zero-level of the independent variable

• provides a standard behavior to which the experimental group can be compared to

explain

experimental design: between groups (between subjects) design

+random assignment

each group in an experiment is composed of a diff set of participants

the various groups must be equal before starting

random assignment: a procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment (used to balance the difference across the various conditions of the experiment)

explain

experimental design: repeated measured (within subjects) design

each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable

• factors about the participants are held constant accross diff conditions and we can rule them out as alternative explanations for any results we obtain

what is counterbalancing

a prodecure in which the order of conditions is varied so that no condition has an overall advantage relative to the others

what is validity

how well an experimental procedure actually tests what it is designed to test

there is internal and external validity

what is internal validity

the degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions

• if experiment was done very well, we can assume independant variable was the cause of the differences in depedant variable (therefor high internal validity)

what does confounding of variables mean

two variables are intertwined in such a way that we cannot determine which one has influenced a dependant variable

…has a confounding variable

• prevents from drawing clear causal conclusions+ ruins internal validity of experiment (also why causal relations cannot be determined by correlational studies)

explain what a placebo is

a substance that has no pharmacological effect

• usually treatment groups get actual treatment and other group gets a placebo (control group)

placebo can make people feel as though they got better

explain placebo effect

+effect on internal validity

people receiving a treatment show a change in behavior because of their expectations, not because the treatment itself has any specific benefit

• decrease internal validity (providing alternative explanation for why reponses change after treatment)

what is the experimenter expectancy effect

subtle and unintentional ways researchers influence their participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researchers hypothesis

what is the double blind procedure

both the participant and the experimenter are kept blind as to which experimental condition the participant is in,

• minimizing participant placebo and experiment expectancy effect

what is external validity

the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings and conditions

• the generalizability of underlying principles

why do we need replication

+what is it

• to determine external validity

• repeating a study to determine whther the original finds can be duplicated

what is a meta analysis

a statistical procedure for combining the results of differnt studied that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of the findings

• inform researchers about the direction and statistical strength of the relationships between two variables

what is cross cultural replications

examining whether findins generalize across differnt cultures