Chapter 5 ID Terms (Thinking & Language)

Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring and understanding knowledge.

Concepts

A mental grouping of similar things, events, and people used to remember and understand objects in our environment as well as categorize them.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category formed on the basis of frequent, experienced features. Reference Point.

Critical Thinking

A mode of thinking in which people test ideas or possible solutions such as arguments and conclusions for errors.

Creativity

Ability to create, generate, or discover new ideas, works, or thoughts.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking focused on reaching one well-defined solution to a problem through one linear method.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking focused on reaching the best solution by attempting various possible strategies.

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one's own cognitive processes.

Trial and Error

Problem solving characterized by repeated attempts until success.

Algorithm

A well-defined set of procedures or rules that is used to solve a problem or accomplish a task.

Heuristics

Simple, basic rules that serve as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.

Insight

The sudden unexplained realization of a solution to a problem.

Wolfgang Köhler

Helped create Gestalt Psychology and researched insight learning.

Intuition

Immediate insight or perception without the use of analytical reasoning.

Mindset

A set of attitudes or beliefs that shape how one sees the world and oneself.

Growth Mindset

Belief that one's abilities and talents can be improved through dedication and hard work.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that one's abilities and talents cannot change.

Cognitive Biases

Limitations or errors in one's objective thinking caused by the brain's tendency to use heuristics to simplify the world around them.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to process and observe information that is consistent with one's beliefs.

Fixation

When one becomes stuck or obsessed with a single mindset or idea so that they are unable to consider another.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to perceive a new use of an object outside of its usual function.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, such as applying previously successful solutions.

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut that functions by determining how closely something matches a typical example of it.

Availability Heuristic

Tendency to use information based on their availability in memory to make decisions.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and decisions.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to take credit for positive outcomes but blame outside factors for negative outcomes.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's beliefs even after new information has refuted them.

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort that arises from conflicting ideas, beliefs, and behaviors.

Justification of Effort

Tendency to attribute greater value to something one has put more effort in than it may actually be worth.

Framing

The process by which something is evaluated or defined that influences decisions or judgements.

Risk or Loss Aversion

Tendency to avoid losses rather than acquire equivalent gains.

Anchoring Effect

Tendency to stick with or anchor onto the first information we receive about a particular subject or event when making decisions.

Frame of Reference

A set of assumptions or criteria by which a person or group judges ideas, actions, or experiences.

Language

A system for communicating thoughts and feelings through speech and written symbols as well as gestures.

Linguistics

The study of language.

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit that carries meaning in a language.

Grammar

A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand each other.

Syntax

Rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

Semantics

Set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language.

Pragmatics

The study of language's ability to express more than what is explicitly stated and its functional properties.

Babbling Stage

Stage of language development at 3 to 4 months in which the infant utters various sounds from its environment that have no meaning.

One-Word Stage

Stage of language development from 1 to 2 years of age in which a child will utter single words.

Two-Word Stage

Stage in language development from 2 years of age in which a child will speak two word sentences.

Overgeneralization

A view by an individual that one event's outcome is representative of all similar events.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

An innate ability of humans to acquire and learn language.

Statistical Learning

Learning based on the amount which something occurs in one's environment.

Linguistic Determinism

One's language determines the way one thinks.

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

Thinking and language mutually influence each other.