Psych Quiz 2 Terms

vulnerable populations

children, individuals w/ varying abilities, disadvantaged groups.

informed consent

form that provides a written description of what to expect (risks, implications) tells potentials participants about the study and allows them to agree to participate. also informs participants that they can back out at any time and that all data collected will remain confidential. Each participant must sign before participating, and if participants are under 18 then their parents/guardians must sign.

minimal risk

risks associated with everyday activities (ex. awkwardness, mild frustration)

institutional review board

board of individuals (scientists, administrators, community members) within a research-conducting institution that reviews all proposals for research conducted with human participants

institutional animal care and use committee

board of individuals (similar set of people as w/ IRB but with veterinarians) that reviews all proposals for research conducted with animals.

deception

purposefully misleading participants for experiment purposes. deception CANNOT be harmful.

debriefing

providing participant complete and honest information about the true purpose of study, use of data, why deception was necessary, and where to get additional information. participants must receive debriefings at the end of studies that involve deception.

how can children participate in studies?

their parents must consent, and if they are 12 and older the child must give assent (secondary consent/agreement).

ethical issues

vulnerable populations (at risk of not being able to fully understand risks and/or give consent without coercion), risk (some experiments have some risk), cost-benefit analysis (assess risks vs. potential benefits of the experiments/tackles the ethical issues).

stress

process by which and individual responds/processes events that they perceive as overwhelming/threatening.

traumatic event

stressors that are so severe (often involve threat of/actual serious injury/death) that they cause long-term severe adverse effects.

stimulus-based definitions of stress

definitions that define stress as a stimulus that causes the reaction. (flaw: fails to recognize differences in people’s reactions).

response-based definitions of stress

definitions that define stress as a response to external stimuli. (flaw: physiological responses associated with stress can occur when we’re responding to situations that aren’t stressful).

flaws of both stimulus-based definitions and response-based definitions

neither provide a complete definition of stress.

appraisal

how we judge a stressor

primary appraisal

judgement of the degree of potential harm/threat to well-being that a stressor may entail.

secondary appraisal

judgement of the available options to deal w/ stressor and how effective those options will be.

eustress

stress associated with positive feelings and optimal performance. (positive motivating force, “good stress”). too much eustress can lead to poor performance (distress)

health psychology

field of understanding psychological influences on physical health as well as the psychology of those who are ill. design + analyze the effectiveness of intervention programs, identify groups that are at risk for negative health outcomes based on psychological factors

fight-or-flight response

adaptive response that maintains homeostasis (adjust internally and externally) that is characterized by physiological changes in the body in preparation/upon perceiving a threat (body is aroused by sympathetic (nervous) and endocrine systems).

general adaptation syndrome

three-stage, non-specific process of the physiological response to stress. response-based definition.

alarm reaction

stage one of general adaptation syndrome. fight or flight reaction upon initial encounter with stressor. involves triggering of the hypothalamus and the adrenal glands.

resistance

stage two of general adaptation syndrome. person adapts (body also adapts) and finds ways to cope, but stays stressed/alert.

exhaustion

stage three of general adaptation syndrome. reached if the stressor does not subside, results in exhaustion/depletion and lasting physical and mental health consequences.

systems related to stress response

sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight, adrenaline/hormones such as epinephrine norepinephrine and cortisol) and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal complex (slower hormone release, hormones include cortisol).

cortisol

common stress hormone that affects the entire body and provides an initial boost of energy when the stressor is encountered. Initially improves the immune system, but weakens it over time (heightened cortisol levels are correlated with depression).

outcomes of extreme/chronic stress

PTSD, MDD, and other psychiatric conditions. onset and progression of physical illness and disease, morbidity, weakened immune system.

chronic stressor

long-term stress inducing event.

acute stressor

short-term stressful event.

traumatic event

extreme stressor (event). involves threat of/actual serious injury and/or death.

PTSD

chronic stress reaction that is triggered by a traumatic event. characterized by symptoms like jumpiness, avoidance, flashbacks, etc.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

scale of 43 life events, rated in life-change units based on how much readjustment is necessary. easy way to assess stress, however scale is vague and groups both desirable/undesirable situations as equally stressful and doesn’t take individual appraisal into account.

daily hassles

stressors that are minor inconveniences in our daily lives. when stacked, can be just as stressful as life-change events, and can be a better predictor of psychological/ and physiological outcomes

job strain

work situation that combines chronic occupational stressors, lack of perceived control, and excessive work/demands. leads to negative physiological and psychological outcomes, risk factor for job burnout.

job burnout

three-dimensional state of exhaustion and cynicism related to one’s occupation due to chronically stressful work conditions. common in people-heavy professions and associated with negative physiological and psychological outcomes.

exhaustion (job burnout)

emotionally drained/depleted.

depersonalization (job burnout)

emotional detachment from recipients of occupation. characterized by a callous and cynical attitude.

diminished sense of personal achievement (job burnout)

disappointment/dissatisfaction with one’s job performance.

examples of stressors (not talking about chronic and acute, actual life events)

anything as long is it is appraised to be stressful by a person. negative interactions/aspects of close relationships, occupational stress, traumatic events, everyday hassles, life events.

three ways to study stress

studying stressors themselves, studying how individuals respond, studying stress as a process/transaction (look at different stressors and how different people interact and cope with them).

coping mechanisms

used to deal with stress.

social support (coping mechanism)

soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances. shown to decrease mortality.

problem-focused coping

confrontation. attempting to manage or alter the stressor. done during stressor.

emotion-focused coping

change/reduce negative emotions associated with stressor. good for things out of our controls. done during stressor.

informational control

acquiring information about stressor to decrease stress. form of proactive coping. done before stressor.

proactive coping

doing something in advance to minimize the impact of a stressor.

methods of gaining control

problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, informational control

Optimism

Focusing on the positive side. Associated with better health outcomes, productivity, and persistence.

Hardiness

Set of attitudes marked by a sense of control, commitment, and courage + motivation. Associated w/ positive health outcomes.

Negative arousal appraisal pathway

Stressful situation > physiological response > negative appraisal > maladaptive physiological response, performance impairments, increased vigilance for cue.

Arousal reappraisal pathway

Stressful situation > physiological response > arousal reappraisal > adaptive physiological response, performance facilitation, decreased vigilance for threat cues, decreased negative effect.

Arousal reappraisal

Reframing stress as a performance aid.

How does arousal reappraisal work?

Interpret physiological stress signals as a tool that benefits performance. Does not decrease stress, but increases sympathetic nervous system response, which is beneficial as it increases blood flow to the brain.

Challenge

Belief that there is potential for growth or personal gain upon primary appraisal of stressor.

Negative arousal appraisal

When physiological arousal caused by a stressor is negatively appraised and leads to impaired performance as a result.

Maladaptive physiological response

Physiological arousal impure performance

Affect

Emotions (in context of appraisal and reappraisal)

Vigilance for threat cues

Looking for other potential stressors.

Coping

Mental and behavioral efforts used to deal with problems relating to stress.

Reappraisal

When a stressor is construed differently, which doesn't affect its threat level.

Perceived control

Beliefs regarding our ability to influence outcomes. Greater perceived control results in better health outcomes, more happiness, and decreased reaction to daily stressors.

Learned helplessness

Acquired belief that one is powerless, even in situations that they can control, due to being unable to control past situations. Linked to depression.

Attribution

Mental explanations for an outcome. External vs. Internal, Global vs. Specific, Stable vs. Unstable. Internal, stable, global attributions linked to depression.

Forms of social support

Advice, encouragement, tangible support, guidance, acceptance, comfort. Linked to better health outcomes/ lower blood pressure during stressful tasks, and possibly better health behaviors.

Relaxation response technique

relaxation and meditation.

Biofeedback technique

Showing people their biological indicators with intent of them being able to control what otherwise couldn't be controlled.

Physical Development

Development of the physical body, the brain (as a structure), motor skills, senses, and health + wellness.

Cognitive development

Development of learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

Psychosocial development

Development of social relationships, personality, and emotions.

Challenges of studying development

Bidirectional influences, cohort effects (cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies are still vulnerable to this), post-hoc fallacy, attrition (longitudinal studies)

Bidirectional influences

children influence their environments/experiences just as much as their environments/experiences influence them.

Post-Hoc Fallacy

Just because one event occurred before another doesn’t mean the first event caused the second.

Cohort effects

Children of same ages often go through some common experiences which can explain certain results/behaviors observed in cohort studies.

Attrition

We lose key data points which can alter or even skew our results, and systematic attrition (people of a certain group within the study tend to drop out more than others) can very much skew results.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Zone between when children find a task too easy or too difficult where children benefit from the help of adults/older children.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. The act of adjusting the level of support children receive as they learn a new skill.

Assimilation

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. Absorbing information into our schema without actually changing our schema (even if that information is wrong)

Germinal Stage

(0-2 weeks) conception (fertilization of ovum by a sperm) occurs. zygote undergoes rapid mitosis (most zygotes don’t make it out of this stage).

Embryonic Stage

(2-8 weeks) the cells can be called an embryo once they reach a cell count of 150 and attach themselves to the uterine lining. placenta/fetal support system forms, which provides oxygen and nourishment to embryo. development of the organs, heart begins beating and the neural tube begins to form. has most critical periods for teratogens.

Fetal Stage

(8 weeks - birth) baby’s reproductive organs differentiate between 9-12 weeks, fingers and toes develop by 16 weeks, hearing and internal organs finished developing by 6 months, birth occurs between 36-40 weeks (birth weight is between 6-7.5 lbs., birth length is 20 in). (baby begins to move as well).

Teratogen

Environmental (biological, chemical, physical) agent that causes harm during the prenatal period. Any drugs can harm development, and when it comes to addictive drugs, some babies can be born with addictions.

Critical Period

Period when developing baby is most sensitive to teratogens.

Babinski Reflex

Toe fanning in response to being stroked.

Moro Reflex

When exposed to sensation of falling, baby fans out arms and then pulls them in.

Rooting Reflex

When cheek is stroked, baby turns head and sucks.

Grasping Reflex

Baby grasps anything that is put into the palm of their hand.

Prenatal care

Medical care that monitors health of mother and fetus. Can provide counseling and planning. Reduces pregnancy risks.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Collection of disorders caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Marked by intellectual disorders such as ADHD, poor impulse control/judgement, learning disorders, and a lower IQ. Marked by physical disorders such as a small head and abnormal facial features. Drinking at any time during pregnancy can lead to intellectual disability.

Effects of smoking during pregnancy

Premature birth, stillbirth, low birth weight, sudden infant death syndrome. Fetus experiences decreased blood oxygen levels due to smoking.

Blooming

Rapid period of neural growth during first few years of life

Pruning

Reduction of neural connections that begins in childhood and continues through adolescence. Allows for greater efficiency and mastery of new skills.

Motor Skills

Ability to move body and manipulate objects. Development of motor skills is marked by certain developmental milestones.

Fine Motor Skills

Movement of smaller/peripheral muscles (ex. muscles in the eyelids, fingers, etc.) used for precise and tiny movements (holding a pencil, playing the violin).

Gross Motor Skills

Movement of large muscles/muscle groups (ex. arms and legs). Used for movement (such as walking, running, sports).

Baillargeon’s Study

Showed that children understand how objects work without having prior experience with them (just seeing them), which disproves Piaget’s theory of early development (children need to experience the object to understand them).

Theory of Mind

Developed between ages 3 and 5. Idea that people have different thoughts, feelings, and beliefs (end of egocentrism in children) (cognitive empathy = theory of mind)

Threat

potential for harm (leads to secondary appraisal)

Cognitive Development

Study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, and remember.

Developmental Psychology

Study of how humans grow and change during their lifetime. Studies physical (movement/physiological/health), cognitive (thought/reasoning/memory), and psychosocial (personality/interpersonal relations) aspects.

Normative Approach

Approach to development that asks what normal development is.