unit 2 concepts

Act psychology (Figure? view of consciousness? What did it REJECT? What did it REBUT?)

1. consciousness = activity of the MIND rather than contents

   1. CONSCIOUS perception = intentional/purposeful

      1. REJECTS Wundtian mind as a reagent

2. . Rebuttal to structuralism–mental activity rather than content/structure

1. Franz Brentano

Anecdotal method (definiiton, problem, used by..?)

1. Using observational reports and stories about animal behavior.

• Relied heavily on casual observations from untrained observers.

  • Problem: Reports could be inaccurate, biased, or exaggerated.

• Used by George Romanes

“Behaviorist Manifesto” (who wrote it? What did it ARGUE & ADVOCATE for?)

1. Written by JOHN WATSON

• Argued that psych should ONLY study observable behavior 

• • ADVOCATED FOR NEW BEHAVIORISM

Black Box (definition, what did it argue? whose idea was it?)

• treating the human mind as a hidden system where only the inputs (stimuli) and outputs (behaviors) can be directly observed

  • Not useful for psychology to look for intervening variables or internal processes 

    1. e.g., goals, motives, intentions, beliefs 

• • BF SKINNER’S IDEA

Bobo Doll Study (WHO conducted it? What did it test? Main findings?)

• Conducted by ALBERT BANDURA

• Tested social learning theory (people learning behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling)

• MAIN FINDING: LEARNING OCCURS THROUGH OBSERVATION

  • Children who saw the aggressive adult model significantly mimicked the exact physical and verbal attacks; those who saw the non-aggressive model showed very little aggression

Center for Cognitive Studies (which 2 people founded it? What did it help ESTABLISH(& how)?)

• George Miller & Jerome Bruner

• Helped establish COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 

• • accretion—a gradual accumulation of changes—rather than a sudden revolution & restoring psychology's longstanding concern with mental life.

Clever Hans (WHAT was he/waht did he do? WHO studied him?)

• Horse that got famous for “solving arithmetic”

• ⁃ Oskar Pfungst proved that Hans could not actually do math. Instead, the horse closely watched his handler's body language.

Cognitive maps (definition, figure?, response to..?)

• a mental representation of an individual's physical environment 

1. Tolman

2. Response to “expectations” anomaly in radical behaviorism

Conditioned reflexes (definition, discovered by..?)

• a learned, automatic response to a previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with a biologically potent stimulus

• • Ivan Pavlov (bells and drooling)

Conflict types (3) - Who’s idea? What’s their relationship with decision-making (what predicts choice approach)?

• LEWIN

1. Decisions slowed by conflicts

   1. Approach-approach - both options are good… which one?

   2. Approach-avoidance - pros and cons of each choice;

   3. Avoidance-Avoidance - 2 bad choices

• 2. Resolution = predicted by field vectors

**Contact Comfort (who discovered this? How?)

• HARLOW

• Baby monkey studies

  1. Raised infant monkeys with two artificial mothers.

• 2.  monkeys consistently preferred clinging to the soft cloth mother (vs. wire mother that had milk), especially when frightened.

CVC or nonsense syllables - who used it ? In what research? What kind of material is this?

1. Used by EBBIGHAUS in MEMORY RESEARCH

• 2. WHOLLY NEW material to study learning/forgetting

Descent of Man- WHO wrote it? what theory does it contain? What is the companion book?

1. By Charles Darwin 

2. Contains theory of human evolution

3. Companion book: selection in relation to sex

   1. males have their features because they’re preferred by females 

ENIAC - what is it? What did it catalyze? What accelerated its invention

• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer—THE FIRST COMPUTER

• Catalyzed FOUNDING of Cognitive Psychology (naturalistic influence?)

• Accelerated by WWII

Field theory (who came up with it? definition/behavior predictor, derives concepts from… (what 2 concepts?), what principle does it embody (meaning…?)? What did it call vector elements), what 2 MAJOR experiments is it connected to?

1. LEWIN

2. Behavior determined by TOTAL PRESENT SITUATION of an individual (Life Space)

   1. Elements of Life Space predict behavior

   2. Situation decomposes into elements

3. Derives principles in physics–Fields of force and magnetism

4. Total situation is more than sum of its parts (GESTALT PRINCIPLE)

5. “Lewin’s eggs” –elements “move” individual behaviors in different directions (vectors)

6. Connected to…

   1. Milgram shock experiment

   2. Stanford prison experiment

Figure-ground segregation (definiton, what kind of principle is it?)

• • human brain's automatic tendency to organize visual information by separating a focal object (the figure) from its surrounding area (the ground

Forgetting curve (definition, rate, WHO came up with it?)

1. rate of retention of new learning across retention intervals

   1. 100% retention goes down to 30% after 1 day of not being tested

   2. CAUTION: Easily misunderstood and misapplied to real life! –Ebbinghaus studied NONSENSE, not REAL material

• 2. EBBINGHAUS

Galapagos Islands - research questions about ..? discovery?

1. How did birds get to those isolated islands? New species–how did they get there if they can’t procreate?

   1. Lifeforms evolve SEPARATELY from life forms on other land masses–same process, different setting

2. Darwin’s finches

   1. Different beaks based on food sources of different islands–seeds/nuts vs. insects

3. Accelerated rate of evolution due to scarce food supply–survival determined by features (well- vs. ill-suited)

   1. NATURAL SELECTION

Gestalt Principles - definition (easiest demonstration), what kind of processing? 3 concepts (one perceptual concept, one illusion, one segregation tendency) , FIGURE? 6 COMPONENTS

• human brain automatically organizes information into meaningful, unified wholes/patterns (Gestaltine)

1. Easier to demonstrate with examples from visual perception, but applies to ALL cognition and behavior.

• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts (top-down processing).

• Perceptual constancy: your brain perceives familiar objects as having stable characteristics despite changes in the  sensory input 

• Muller-Lyer illusion:  two lines of equal physical length appear to be different lengths because of the direction of the arrow-like fins–based on WHOLE, not elements

  • Context effects

• • Figure-ground segregation: the human brain's automatic tendency to organize visual information by separating a focal object (the figure) from its surrounding area (the ground

WERTHEIMER

1. proximity

2. closure

3. figure-ground

4. continuity

5. similarity

6. simplicity (Pragnanz)

Hixon Symposium (when/where? WHAT DID IT START ? WHO presented (2))

• September 1948 at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)

•  helped launch the cognitive revolution and the rise of information-processing theories of the mind

1. Karl Lashley (complex behavior cannot be explained by simple S-R chains) 

2. John von Neumann (connections between computing, automata, and brain function).

H.M.S. Beagle- what was it used for? 

1. Research expedition to make naturalistic observations around the world (1831-1836)

   1. Darwin sketched all these animals

2. Studies diversity of life on Galapagos Islands–Galapagos Finches (natural selection) 

3. Captain Fitzeroy = very protestant–thought expedition could find supportive evidence for CREATION

Insight learning (definition, figure)

1. the sudden, spontaneous realization of a problem's solution—often called an "aha!" or "lightbulb" moment

   1. No trial and error

Wolfgang Köhler (studies on chimpanzees)

Instinctual drift (definition, problem for what school of thought?)

 tendency of a trained animal to stop performing a learned behavior and revert to its natural instinctual behaviors, even with continuous reinforcement

• • Problem for radical behavioralism 

Imageless thought (definniotn, what school of thought, figure? What does it REJECT)

• complex thoughts that can occur without sensory images–independent from sensation/feeling; unconscious associations/knowledge

• Wurzburg school

• Oswald Kulpe

• ⁃ REJECTS WUNDT’S introspection

Law of Effect (definition, figure)

• behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while actions leading to discomfort or unpleasant outcomes are less likely to occur again

• Thorndike

Law of Parsimony (definiton, figure)

• the simplest explanation for animal behavior is preferred over a complex one.

• • C. Loyd Morgan

Group dynamics (3 styles, figure?)

• LEWIN

• authoritarian, 

• democratic, 

• laissez-faire ("hands-off" government)

• 1. Democratic = most effective

Learning curve (definition & subconcept (law) figure)

• a person's performance or efficiency improves over time with experience

  • Environment selects behaviors that cause adaptation over time--cats would spend less time trying to escape with each trial

    1. less biting bars & yowling WITH EACH TRIAL/TIME SPENT IN BOX

  • Law of exercise: S → R associations are strengthened with practiced

• 1. THORNDIKE

Life Space (definition, what theory does it belong to, figure)

1. The TOTAL ENVIRONMENT an organism is in

• 2. LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY

Little Albert(focus area; procedure + key terms, who conducted it?)

1. [classical] Conditioning a phobia–fear = result of condition

   1. Albert sees white rat (neutral stimulus)

   2. Loud noise (US) whenever Albert goes to touch the rat–scares Albert (UR)

   3. After a few visits, Albert would cry (CR) whenever the rat (CS) was in front of him

• 2. JOHN WATSON

Little Peter (focus area; procedure + precusor to..?, who conducted it?)

• investigated whether learning principles could reduce fears, rather than merely create them.

  • Peter (eventually got rid of his fear of rabbits by moving rabbit closer over time while he ate)

• precursor to behavior therapy,

  • MARY COVER JONES

Rotter’s Social Learning Theory (3 concepts (2 elements of learning - expectations & value of outcome, 1 outlook + its modern version)

human behavior is learned through interaction with the environment & expectations & prior experience

1. Expectancies: a person's subjective belief/probability estimate that a specific behavior will lead to a particular outcome 

1. Reinforcement value: an individual’s subjective preference, desirability, or importance an assigned to a specific reward

   1. Probability to engage in behavior 

2. Locus of control: the degree to which individuals believe they have control over the events, outcomes (external vs. internal)

   1. External = events/outcomes are NOT in individual’s control–luck; circumstances

   2. Internal = individuals are RESPONSIBLE for events/outcomes are 

      1. Healthier, more adaptive thinking

   3. developed I-E scale

   4. Attributional styles: cognitive personality variable that describes how people habitually explain the causes of positive or negative events in their lives

      1. (modern version of locus of control) 

Magic Number 7 (definition, who came up with it? WHO DOESNT APPROVE**)

•  the capacity limits of short-term memory (Working Memory)

  1. 7 plus/minus 2

  2. SKINNER DOESN’T APPROVE–thinks cognitive psych. is a MISTAKE because it focuses on the “black box” (mind

• 1. GEORGE MILLER

Mental set (definition, figure, predictor?)

• cognitive tendency or frame of mind to approach a problem using a strategy, rule, or procedure that has worked in the past

• Oswald Kulpe

• • CATALYST = DETERMINATOIN TENDENCIES

Minnesota Study of Twins(procedure, findings)

1. Biomedical & psychological tests on twins who were separated in infancy and raised in different family environments

   1. Behavior STRONGLY tied to genetic influence–correlations higher in identical twins

   2. Scores = more similar in twins who’re separated than those raised together

Bandura’s Social cognition Theory (what kind of learning & reinorcement? behavioral concept (its antithesis)), learning framework influence factors (2)) what does it EXAMINE?

1. Observational learning: the process of learning by watching and modeling others

   1. exposure, acquisition, acceptance

   2. Vicarious reinforcement/punishment: an observer's tendency to imitate a behavior increases/decreases after watching another person (a "model") receive a reward/punishment for that action

2. Modeling: Imitation

   1. Counter-imitation: observer intentionally does the exact opposite of the behavior exhibited by a model

3. Influences of different models

   1. Age and gender

   2. 2. Status (“role models”)

SELF-EFFICACY

New School for Social Research - what was it? How many families did they provide jobs to? What was it’s nickname? Why was it limiting for Gestalt’s continuation? WHO taught there?

1. refuge for many scholars and artists displaced by WWII

   1. Grant from Rockefeller Foundation expanded their reach

2. Provided jobs for 180 families in Europe

3. University of Exile

4. NO Ph.D. program (limiting for Gestalt’s continuation)

• 1. Professor can’t pass ideas to students–U.S. dominated by Behaviorism

5. WERTHEIMER TAUGHT

Operant conditioning (definiton, figure, studies)

• method of learning where voluntary behavior is shaped by its rewards or punishments

• BF Skinner 

• Skinner’s box (An animal inside explores and accidentally triggers the lever & gets reward. the animal learns the connection between the action and the consequence)

  • Reward/punishment schedules 

Phi phenomenon (WHO studied it? Definition (when does the phenomenon take place - who did it prove WRONG?**)? Experiments’ goal?)

• Wertheimer

1. optical illusion where the brain perceives continuous motion between separate, stationary objects/lights flashing in rapid succession

   1. Post-sensation–BRAIN ACTIVELY CREATES ILLUSIONS and fills in gaps between static positions of each from; brain = CREATIVE & CONSTRUCTIVE/CONNECTIVE (Titchener = WRONG, brain is NOT a reagent)

      1. Motion picture frames

2. Goal = reduce Phi phenomenon to basic elements

   1. Projected 2 slits of light 

      1. 1/20 sec. = looks like there’s only one bar that’s moving

Puzzle Box (who used it, what was it used for/to study (type of learning + concept & laws)?)

• THORNDIKE

• A box used to study trial-and-error & learning curves

  • law of effect

  • law of exercise

Through repeated trials, correct behaviors increased, and escape time shortened.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (what concept does it examine, enhancement/strengthening method, what TWO THINGS is it DISTINCT from?)

1. Concept of self-efficacy: an individual's belief in their capacity to organize/execute behaviors

   1. the belief that you can do a behavior

2. MODELING to enhance self-efficacy → Watching someone else go through the treatments changes self-efficacy (strengthens belief that you can do the behavior)

   1. Bandura’s snake phobics (exposure therapy to snakes)

3. DISTINCT from global self-esteem–doesn’t affect how you feel about yourself

• 4. DISTINCT from Rotter’s expectancies example–doesn’t affect knowledge of downstream effects/expectations

Sociobehaviorism - definition (what is the position of behavior?), What methods and observations? What IDEA does it REJECT? What kind of application does it bring to problems of the mind?

1. The human mind/behavior develop through social interaction, symbolic communication, and shared experiences 

   1. Behavior = outcome variable; Experimental method = essential 

   2. Positivistic

2. REJECTS “Black Box” prohibition–manipulates that state of mind of the subject

3. Clinical applications to human problems

Sociobiology (definition, figure)

1. the study of the biological and evolutionary foundations of social behavior–behavioral differences are evolution & genetically determined

• 2. E.O. Wilson

Stimulus-response bonds (definition, figure & school of thought)

• the neural/behavioral connection formed between a specific stimulus and a subsequent response

• • WATSON’S BEHAVIORISM

Symposium on Information Theory (established WHAT FIELD OF PSYCH.?)? What 3 IMPORTANT PAPERS were presented? (1 computational, 1 lingual, 1 cognitive)) 

• MIT marks the official founding of cognitive psychology.

• Three important papers:

• “Logic Theorist” program - Herbert Simon and Allen Newell

  1. automated, human-like problem-solving & mathematical reasoning machine

• George Miller’s “magic number 7” in short-term memory.

  1. 7 plus or minus 2

• • Noam Chomsky: theory of universal grammar.

Pavlov’s lab (what was it called (& why) ? Who provided him with the lab? Why?)

1. “Tower of Silence” → Complete control of light/sound

   1. provided to him by Soviets

• 2. Soviet desire to compete with AMERICAN SCIENCE → royal treatment of scientists; didn’t let Pavlov leave the country

Vicarious reinforcement (definition, framework (& figure))

• • learning from the consequences others’s experiences.

• BANDURA

• Social cognitive theory

Zeigarnik effect (definition, connection between [] & []?)

• the tendency to recall unfinished tasks more readily than completed tasks.

• connects MOTIVATION and MEMORY by suggesting that unfinished tasks maintain psychological tension, which can make them easier to recall.

Watson’s Behaviorism - what 2 schools of thought influenced it? What did he DENY as cause for human behavior? What was his view of EMOTIONS?

1. Influenced by:

   1. Empiricism

   2. Associationists

      1. Stimulus-Response bonds 

2. DENIED role of instincts/genetics in human behavior

3. EMOTIONS = patterns of physiological change: fear, rage, and love

   1. Studies of fear with “Little Albert”

**HOW is language viewed in relation to human cognition? (+2 points)

• an INNATE COMPUTATIONAL SYSTEM that comprises human cognition

1. Expression & new ideas

• 2. The human mind has built-in mechanisms for acquiring and generating language.

**why is visual perception used in getalt psych.? WHO does it reject (what did they say in contrast to gestalt psych.?)

• Visual perception is used in gestalt psychology because IT’S EASY TO DEMONSTRATE THAT WHOLE > THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS

• 1. REJECTS TITCHENER (Whole = sum of its parts)

**What kinds of models does Clark Hull draw from?

• **MATH & ENGINEERING

  1. hypothetical , deductive model of math

Who was Kurt Lewin’s teacher in Germany? WHAT KIND OF PSYCHOLOGST WAS HE?**

• • Stumpf (Gestalt Psychologist) - “Levine”

Who rejected George Miller’s main discovery (7 plus/minus 2) and WHY?**

• • SKINNER DOESN’T APPROVE–thinks cognitive psych. is a MISTAKE because it focuses on the “black box” (mind)

Ladder of Animal Intelligence (defintion, figure)

A hierarchy  to rank animal species according to their supposed levels of mental functioning.

• Romanes

Anecdotal Method (definition, limitation, figure)

Studying animal behavior through observational reports and stories, often from casual or untrained observers.

• Limitation: Reports could be inaccurate, biased, exaggerated, and lacking scientific rigor.

Romanes

1. Introspection by Analogy (definition, limitation, figure)

1. Inferring an animal's mental processes by assuming they are similar to the observer's own human mental processes.

   1. Limitation: anthropomorphism

2. romanes

Ebbinghaus’ Memory Research (what kind of memory studies (2)? Who was his main subject? What kind of stimulus material? Effects of what 3 things? what curve? modern concept & effect?

1. Learning and recall studies 

   1. Used SELF as the main subject

2. Needed wholly NEW STIMULUS material: Nonsense syllables (“CVC” verbal stimuli)

   1. Learned 420 lists of 16 CVC syllables → some 34 times! (14,280 trials)

3. Effects of repetition

   1. Numerical function/law–how many reps for 100% recall?

      1. Learning curve

4. Effects of list length

   1. Longer list = harder to remember

   2. Cost of recall when adding items–interaction between list length & repetition

5. Effects of placement of stimulus

   1. Serial position effects

   2. Rehearsal 

1. FORGETTING CURVE: rate of retention of new learning across retention intervals

   1. 100% retention goes down to 30% after 1 day of not being tested

   2. Self-generated info. = more memorable than provided info. 

   3. nonsense vs. meaningful material–meaningful = easier to learn

2. [Modern] depth of processing concept

   1. Shallow (surface-level features of info. (sounds & looks)) vs. deep processing (meaning, context, and connections of info.)

1. spacing effect: learning/remembering information better when practice sessions are spread out over time rather than crammed

comparitive psychology (definition, figure)

study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals

• robert Yerkes

Edwin Boring (1946) (published WHAT major paper - what question did it raise? (**student under… **first []/first to…) ) 

• Publishes a paper on “Mind and Mechanism.”

  • Raises the question: What would a robot have to do to be considered intelligent?

1. STUDENT OF TITCHENER**

2. **FIRST HISTORIAN OF PSYCHOLOGY–wrote the first history of psychology.

Who was Oswald Kulpe’s ADVISOR?**

WUNDT

Who was Karl Lashley’s advisor?**

WATSON

what kind of FIGURE is Carl Stumpf?**

ROOT FIGURE