Psychology Exam 3

Developmental Psychology

examines changes across multiple perspectives

• physical

• emotional

• cognitive

• sociocultural

Themes of Importance

• heredity & environment (nature/nurture)

• continuity v. stages

• stability v. change

Zygote

Prenatal Development

• from conception until 2 weeks

Embryo

Prenatal Development

• zygote attaches to uterus

• zygote inner cells become embryo

• outer cells become placenta

• (2-8 weeks)

Fetus

Prenatal Development

• somewhat recognizably human

In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function

• By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human.

(Weeks 9—40 or birth)

Teratogens

any environmental substance that can reach fetus during prenatal development and disrupt

• alcohol, nicotine, mercury, lead

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

birth defects and later behavioral/cognitive developments (due to teratogens)

Developments Begin Before Birth

• taste preferences

• auditory/language learning

• extreme stress/famine/malnourishment

Forming the Brain

CNS (Central Nervous System) begins to form at 2 weeks

• at birth, 80+ billion neurons

  • brain weighs 300g → 1000g (one yr) → 1200g (adult)

    • more axon dendrite connections = more weight

Synaptic Pruning

“use it or lose it”, elimination of synapses during development

• pruning isn’t bad, enhances neural efficiency, fine-tunes neural connections/performance

• occurs at diff times in diff areas of the brain—not completed till adolescence

sensorimotor

experiencing world thru senses/actions

• birth → 2 yrs

• learn basic forms of cause/effect through play

• lack of object permanence

Pre-operational

toddlers and young children

• internally represent world through language and mental imagery (symbolic representation)

concrete operational

• thinking logically about concrete events

• arithmetical operations

Egocentrism

limitation of preoperational

• perceive world from solely their POV

centration

limit of preoperational

• focus on single feature of an object/event when reasoning/problem solving

Formal Operational

Abstract thinking & reasoning

constructionist

Piagnet’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• depicts children constructing knowledge for themselves

  • children are active (engaging in world) and intrinsically motivated to learn (important lessons)

Schemas

frameworks for understanding, organizing, and interpreting information

Assimilation

process which ppl mold or interpret new information to fit existing schemas

Accommodation

process which ppl change/adapt schemas in response to new experiences that don’t fit existing structure

• changing beliefs

Theory of Mind

ability to “read” mental state of others, what you know may be diff than what others know/feel

• between 3.5→4.5 yrs, develop theory of mind

• 4-5, detect false beliefs of others

Conservation

amount of product stays the same regardless of shape of container

• centration, focused more on shape rather than product/content

• The Balance Scale (weights and distance between)

Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Development

present children as social beings, intertwined w/ other people who help them gain skills and understanding

• focus on contribution of other ppl & surrounding culture to children’s development

• emphasize guided participation & scaffolding

guided participation

social activation between child & more knowledgable individual

scaffolding

organize events that allow children to engage at higher level than on their own

• eventually withdraw once child received support

zone of proximal development

what a learner can do w/o help v. what can be achieved with guidance & encouragement from a skilled partner

Emotion (3-parts)

• physiological arousal

• behavioral expression

• subjective feeling (conscious experience)

Mood

different than emotions

• diffuse

• longer-lasting states that do not have an identifiable object or trigger

What do emotions do for us?

• help respond to important situations and convey information to others

Emotional Responsiveness

• sadness, fear, anger, disgust, happiness, surprise

• emotions had adaptive value and were shaped by evolution (natural selection)

• recognized in all cultures, universal facial & behavioral expressions

Display Rules

• sociocultural norms about when, where, and how one should display emotion—but the underlying experience remains the same

“Constructed” Emotions

how combined emotions functions

• valence (positive/negative)

• arousal (low to high)

• appraisal (situational interpretation)

evolutionary perspective, issues might be resolved & integrated by taking a functional approach to understanding emotion

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

tendency of facial muscle recognition to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

• friends also influence

Facial & Behavioral Feedback Hypothesis

creating certain body actions slightly influences emotions

• smiling increases happiness, frowning decreases (photo rating)

perception of body’s actions contribute to emotional feeling

• Botox is very toxic, struggle to read facial expressions

James-Lange Theory

theory of emotion

Physical change → emotional feeling

• Support: facial feedback effect

• Problematic: Möbius syndrome

• Inducing a frown slightly lowers pleasantness (photo rating)

Cannon-Bard

theory of emotion

Physical change & emotional feeling are independent & simultaneous

• physical changes inadequate for specifying emotional experience

Schacter-Singer (two factor) theory

theory of emotion

• Physical changes PLUS appraisal

Does Money Buy Happiness?

on average, no happier now than 70 yrs. ago

Adaptation & Hedonic Treadmill

whatever the circumstances, we adapt quickly

• winning the lottery

• going blind/paralyzed

• cancer

Subjective Well-Being

Not associated with improved, long-term SWB (subjective well-being)

More money:

• Material goods

• Better car

• Better clothes

• Better living space

• Alcohol / Drug use

Positive Psychology & Flourishing

Associated with long-term SWB

Adequate sleep, exercise, diet/nutrition

• Closer relationships

  • Social connections involving friendship, intimacy, trust

• Money

  • spent on others or on experiences (rather than material goods)

• Engagement, flow, purpose (meaning beyond the self)

• Gratitude

  • Taking time to notice, savor, & document gratitude,

sharing your gratitude with others

Stress

process by which we perceive & respond to certain events called stressors

• appraise as threatening or challenging

• less from events but rather how we appraise

stressor

the event you’re confronting

appraisal

what you make of the event, initially automatic

• re-appraisal and reevalutating

types of stressors

• catastrophes/traumatic events

  • natural disasters/assault, causes feat/helplessness

• significant life changes

  • death of a loved one/moving to a new town

• chronic lifestyle conditions & daily hassles

  • gradual onset & lower intensity, but long lasting (racism/sexism/prejudice)

  • daily hassles (slow wifi/noisy neighbors)

Appraisal/Re-Appraisal

• threat v challenge

changing how you think about a situation to influence your feelings

• better social relationships

• better coping w/stress

threat

appraisal of situational demands exceed perceptions of personal resources

challenge

perceptions of personal resources exceed appraisal of situational demands

Hans Selye (1979)

stress response as the non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it

general adaptation syndrome

• Hans Selye

threats to the body activate a general response to stress, a pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to a variety of stressors

Stress Physiology

2 primary symptoms

• autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

  • associated with release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and “fight or flight” response

• pupils dilate, airways widen, breathing more rapid

HPA axis

• hypothalamus

• pituitary gland

• adrenal cortex (prompts release of cortisol)

  • adrenal hormones can play a role depending on appraisal and social behavior (DHEA/oxytocin)

chronic stress, cortisol is overstimulating and leads to memory problems

cortisol

released during both a “threat” and “challenge” response

DHEA

decreases during challenge response

Tend-and-Befriend

variations on stress response

• under stress, providing support to others (tending) and/or seeking support from others (befriending)

• oxytocin prompts affiliative behavior in response to stress

  • decreases: sympathetic reactivity, blood pressure, pain sensitivity, & cortisol levels

emotion-focused coping

responding to stress by trying to prevent or control emotional responses

• can be functional in some circumstances (but maladaptive in others) and don’t solve (or prevent) problems.

problem-focused coping

type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront, minimize, or eliminate the stressor

learned helplessness

hopelessness & passive resignation when unable to avoid repeated

aversive events, despite attempts to do so (efforts to alter situation

or outcomes fail to do so)

• tested on dogs

Locus of Control

an individual’s beliefs about their ability to influence outcomes of their life

EVENTS

• internal: belief one has the ability to influence life outcomes

• external: belief factors outside one’s control will determine outcomes

  • higher mortality rate

  • “in God’s hands”

  • ignoring in things in front of you

• influence on health: comparison of internal/external

  • research w/ seniors varying level of control

Positive Coping Strategies

• exercise

• social support

• relaxation/meditation

• spirituality

use of drugs to relieve stress is avoidance/defense strategy NOT coping

situational selection

changing your situation to influence your feelings

• greater well-being

• positive emotions

suppression

hiding/dampening your emotional expression

• feeling less authentic in social life

• fewer positive emotions

möbius syndrome

neurological condition caused by the underdevelopment or absence of sixth/seventh cranial nerves

• complete/partial facial paralysis

social psychology

explore our connections by scientifically studying how we think about/influence/relate to others

• SOCIAL psychologists: focus more on situations and how they affect thoughts/feelings/behavior

• PERSONALITY psychologists: focus on person (internal characteristics)

situational attributions

assumes the external environment/behavioral context, can have both

subtle & forceful effects on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

dispositional attributions

attributes behavior to internal factors, such as genes, personality traits,

and character qualities

fundamental attribution error

tendency to emphasize personal traits (disposition) and minimize circumstantial influences (situation)

situational attributions (behavior)

attributing behavior to the external environment or the behavioral context

dispositional attributions (behavior)

attributing behavior to internal factors such as genes/personality traits

consequences of attributions

poverty

hurricane katrina in new orleans

• internal (dispositional), if you work hard you get ahead

• external (situational), poverty is typically the result of structural inequities

self-serving bias

• attribution bias

tendency to take personal credit for positive outcomes (dispositional) but blame external causes for negative outcomes (situational)

actor-observer bias

• attribution bias

tendency to attribute one’s own behavior to situational factors, but others’ behavior to dispositional factors

• observer attributes behavior to disposition of actor

• actor attributes behavior to situation

social identity theory

group membership is an important part of how we view ourselves.

• groups we belong to are ingroups

• groups we do not belong to are outgrips

Ultimate Attribution Error (UAE)

cognitive bias where we exhibit a “double standard” in our attributions

• different situational vs dispositional attributions depending on the group membership of the person in question

  • in-group members receive little blame for negative actions

  • out-group members receive little credit for positive actions