bio lec exam study

carbohydrates

include polysaccharides, which contain disaccharides, which are composed of two monosaccharides

lipids

include triglycerides, which are composed of fatty acids and glycerol

proteins

composed of peptides, which are made from amino acids

nucleic acids

include DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotides

high-energy compounds

include ATP, which is composed of nucleotides and phosphate groups

functional groups

atoms or clusters of atoms that are covalently bonded to carbon backbone

hydrocarbons

molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

cell theory

the cell is the basic structural and functional unit for all life, all living organisms are comprised of at least one cell

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks (monomers)

dehydration synthesis

chemical reaction that joins two smaller molecules together to form a larger molecule while releasing a molecule of water as a byproduct

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction where a water molecule breaks one or more chemical bonds in a compound using water

monosaccharides

one carbon chain, quick energy, are the basic building block for all other carbohydrates

disaccharides

two carbon chains, for internal carbohydrate transport (in plants)

polysaccharides

more than two carbon chains, structural support and long term energy storage

peptide bonds

amino acids are held together by them, they are a type of covalent bond

polypeptide

an amino acid polymer; must fold up into complex conformations to be a protein

primary protein structure

connection of amino acids through covalent peptide bonds to make a chain

secondary protein structure

localized coils or folds formed by hydrogen bonds between the amino and carboxyl backbone groups

tertiary protein structure

determined by interactions amount various side chains (R groups) overall three dimension shape

quaternary protein structure

results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

prokaryotic cells

DNA is not in a nucleus, no membrane bounded organelles in the cytoplasm, have cell wall

eukaryotic cells

contain a nucleus and numerous organelles

plant cells

have a cellulose cell wall and can contain chloroplasts

cytoplasm

fluid and organelles within plasma membrane (all non-clear components inside plasma membrane)

nucleus

stores DNA

mitochondria

produce ATP, performs cellular respiration (metabolism/breakdown of glucose)

chloroplast

site of photosynthesis, has own DNA and ribosomes

ribosomes

read the mRNA instructions and synthesize proteins, made of ribosomal RNA and protein

endomembrane system

regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

rough endoplasmic reticulum

functions: synthesis and export of secretory proteins and glycoproteins, protein folding

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

functions: synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs and poisons, stores calcium ions

the golgi apparatus

modifies products of the ER, sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

cytoskeleton

tracks for vesicle transport, a dense network of fibers that supports and shapes the cell, anchors organelles, and is used in vesicle transport

lysosomes

organelles that break down molecules = recycling center

cytosol

fluid component of cytoplasm, viscous, water-based.

plasma membrane

separates cytoplasm from extracellular space (all cells have a plasma membrane)

amphipathic

they have both polar and non polar parts (phospholipids are amphipathic)

second law of thermodynamics

universal events naturally proceed towards disorder, meaning greater freedom

diffusion

random movement of molecules

solution

liquid with ions or molecules dissolved in it

solvent

the liquid in a solution

solute

the particles dissolved in the solvent

osmosis

diffusion of water through a membrane down its concentration gradient, towards high solute concentration

hypotonic solution

a liquid that has a lower concentration of dissolved solutes than the inside of a cell

hypertonic

a liquid that has a higher concentration of solutes than the inside of a cell

isotonic

a solution that has the same exact concentration of solutes and water as the cytoplasm inside a cell

channel proteins

let solute (bulk H2O or ions) cross membrane; solutes travel down concentration gradient via diffusion (passive - no energy input needed); solutes travel freely through without binding to transporter protein

Passive/facilitated transport proteins

allow small polar molecules to cross; solutes travel down concentration gradient via diffusion (passive - no energy input needed); carrier protein = solute must bind to transporter protein to cross

active transporter proteins

pump ions or polar molecules across; solute actively transported against concentration gradient (active - needs energy input); carrier protein = solute must bind to transporter protein to cross

voltage-gated ion channels

open in response to change in voltage

ligand-gated ion channels

binding of a specific small chemical (ligand) to the receptor

mechanically-gated ion channels

open in response to pressure

glucose transporter protein

passive transporter, must bind the solute, bidirectional

exocytosis

movement of material into the cell via the formation of a vesicle

endocytosis

movement of material from a vesicle out of the cell

dendrites (neuron)

collect electrical signals

cell body (neuron)

integrated incoming signals and generates outgoing signal to axon

axon (neuron)

passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell (another neuron or muscle cell)

facilitated diffusion

the spontaneous, passive movement of molecules or ions across a biological membrane from an area of high concentration to low concentration using specific integral transport proteins

Gibbs free energy

the energy available to do work or “useful” energy

energy coupling

the transfer of energy from one reaction to another in order to drive the second reaction

catabolic pathway

complex molecules are broken down to release energy

anabolic pathway

complex molecules are built from simpler molecules requiring energy

enzymes

physically bind the substrate, are found in all living things, accelerate reactions

activation energy

the minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur

competitive inhibition

a process where an inhibitor molecule directly blocks a substrate from binding to an enzyme’s active site

noncompetitive inhibition

a type of enzyme regulation where an inhibitor binds to an enzyme at a location other than the active site with equal affinity for both the free enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex

metabolism

total chemical reactions of an organism

oxidation-reduction (redox reactions)

the passage or electrons from one atom/molecule to another; reactions always take place together

glycolysis

first stage in cellular respiration, involves ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions

the citric acid (Krebs) cycle

carbons that entered cycle as Acetyl-CoA are oxidized to CO2

ETC blockers

inhibit flow of electrons and pumping of H+ by ETC; prevent formation of H+ gradient

uncouplers

allow pumping of H+, but disconnect it from ATP synthesis; let H+ sneak back into matrix without using ATP synthase

ATP synthase inhibitors

allow electron flow and creation of H+ gradient; directly inhibit activity of ATP synthase

rotenone

from the dried roots of the cube plant; disrupts electron transport in metabolism

oligomycin

antibiotic that blocks ATP synthase

respiration

oxidation of sugars to generate ATP

photosynthesis

reduction of CO2 and water to build sugar

autotrophs

produce complex organic molecules (e.g. glucose, starch) from simple inorganic molecules (e.g. CO2, H2O)

photoautotrophs

transform radiant energy (sunlight) into chemical energy (ATP) to produce complex organic molecules (e.g. glucose, starch) from simple inorganic molecules (e.g. CO2, H2O)

light

a form of energy; different wavelengths contain different amounts of energy; pigment molecules in chloroplasts absorb light energy

chlorophyll

the main pigment in plants; absorbs light energy;

the Calvin cycle

CO2 is reduced to produce sugar