Psych exam 1

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

Goals of Psychology

To describe, predict, explain, and manage mind and behavior

Theory

an explanation of behaviors or events that organizes observations and predicts future observations

Role of theory

theory should guide and give meaning to our observations, yet theories should be formed, modified, and perhaps even discarded based on observations

Requirements of valuable theory

1. organizes and links observations

2. implies hypotheses

some theories imply practical applications, and those without could be invaluable to solving future problems

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, may be derived from theory, and may be inspired by observation of phenomena, and are tested systematically

The Scientific Method

Hypothesis derivation → research question

Hypothesis testing → empirical study

Theory evaluation → data analysis

Theory construction/revision → conclusions/research literature

Values of the scientific approach

Healthy skepticism → accepting findings only after they are repeatedly verified by research

Open-mindedness → willingness to have ones own ideas be proven false

Approaching questions with these values supports critical thinking

Structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection (Wilhelm Wundt)

Functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment (William James)

Psychoanalytic Theory

focuses on the role of the unconscious in affection conscious behavior (Sigmund Freud)

Gestalt Psychology

focuses on humans as a whole rather than individual parts (Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler)

Behaviorism

focuses on observing and managing behavior (Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner)

Humanism

emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers)

Cognitive Approach

studies internal mental processes (such as thinking, memory, attention, problem-solving) (Ulric Neisser, Noam Chomsky, George A. Miller, and Donald Broadbent)

Basic research

acquiring general knowledge about a particular phenomenon

Applied research

investigations are made on everyday issues, direct applications to problems

Empirical explanation

based on observable evidence, other researchers must be able to verify

Rational explanation

following the rules of logic, consistent with known facts

Parsimonious explanation

using the fewest number of assumptions to describe a behavior

Psychological science structure

Hypothesis - testable prediction

Method - how the hypothesis is tested (true experiment/correlational study/observational study)

Results - statistics to organize and examine data

Describing findings - explanation of results and comparison to similar research

True experiment (experimental research)

manipulation of one or more variables expected to cause a difference

equivalent groups are treated identically (except in the way a variable is intentionally manipulated)

• focused on determining cause and effect

• only true experimental research allows conclusions about cause and effect

Non-experimental research

Correlational research (surveys, longitudinal research, archival research)

Observational research (naturalistic observation, clinical or case studies)

Independent variable (IV)

manipulated by the experimenter

cause

researcher independently sets two or more levels of this variable

Dependent variable (DV)

measured outcome

effect

dependent on how the individual was treated

Variable

exactly how a construct of interest is manipulated or measured in a study

Random assignment

placing individuals into different levels of the independent variable in a way that ensures they have an equal chance of ending up in any group

• spreads individual differences evenly across groups

Confounding variable

unknown and unwanted variables that provide an alternative explanation for why the groups differ

Experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of study

Participant bias

people/animal expectations or beliefs influencing their experience in a situation

Single-blind study

researcher knows which participants are in each group but the participants do not

• controls for participant expectations

Double-blind study

researchers and participants are blind to group assignments

• controls for participant and experimenter expectations

Correlation

relationship between variables

Correlational methods

used when a researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study (ethical concerns)

correlational research allows prediction, but cannot determine cause and effect

Surveys

A list of items that can be delivered in many ways:

• Paper-and-pencil

• Electronically

• In person

Questions are referred to as “items”

Use different scales/methods of asking

Advantages: Can gather large amounts of data, can establish predictive relationships between variables

Disadvantage: Cannot make claims about cause and effect

Longitudinal research

Same group measured repeatedly over extended time

Expected that participants may drop out, and often initially recruit many participants

Attrition

reduction of number as participants drop out of the study over time

Cross-sectional research

comparing multiple segments segments of the population at the same time (i.e. comparing people in their 20s, 30s and 40s)

combining research methods within a study or across multiple, provides valuable different perspectives

Archival research

uses past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

Naturalistic observation

systemically recording behavior in a setting in which it occurs with no manipulation (natural setting for the behavior of interest)

observer is usually unobtrusive or even hidden

But cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect

Clinical/case studies

focus on one individual, typically an extreme or unique psychological circumstance

But difficult to generalize results for a larger population

Participants

humans who volunteer in research

Subjects

animals subjected to research

Population

overall group of individuals of interest

Sample

subset of individuals selected from population

Random sample

subset of a population, every member has an equal chance of being selected

• preferred method

• more likely participants will be representative of the larger population

• unbiased

Peer-reviewed article

Evaluated by other scientists with relevant expertise

• provide feedback on quality of the paper before acceptance for publication

• helps weed out poorly conceived/executed studies

• suggested revisions before acceptance improves final article

Research described in enough detail that other researchers can replicate the study

Sampling bias

sample not representative of the population of interest

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Nerves throughout body sends information to and from CNS

Somatic nervous system

voluntary muscles and sensory receptors

Autonomic nervous system

bodily functions like digestion, etc.

Sympathetic nervous system - mobilizes bodily resources

• fight/flight/freeze

• tend & befriend

Parasympathetic nervous system

• conserves bodily resources

Neuron

carries information

Dendrites

receive neurotransmitters from other neurons

Axon

transmits action potential

terminal buttons

secrete neurotransmitters

synapse

junction where chemical info is transmitted

myelin sheath

structural support and insulation

Action potential

Threshold: point were neuron is triggered

Very brief shift in electrical charge that travels along axon

Chemical communication

Axon terminals release neurotransmitter (NT)

• Neurotransmitter crosses the synapse

• Neurotransmitter binds to its receptors

Each neurotransmitter can bind only to receptor sites that fit its structure, like a key and lock

Reuptake

More molecules of the neurotransmitter are released into the synapse than can be absorbed by the receptors of the receiving neuron, so the sending neuron reabsorbs leftover neurotransmitter molecules (to be used the next time the neuron fires)

Serotonin

Modulates mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes (such as vomiting)

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

major inhibitor neurotransmitter

Glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Neurotransmitter

Receiving neuron affected in one of two ways

• Excitatory: increases likelihood of neuron firing

• Inhibitory: decreases likelihood of neuron firing

Nervous system relies on neurotransmitters to communicate information between neurons

Psychotropic drug

pharmaceutical or recreational substance that affects mood, thought, behavior, or perception through chemical changes in the brain

psychotropic drugs influence neurotransmitters

Agonist

enhance neurotransmitter activity (opioids. MDMA, cocain, SSRI)

Antagonist

block neurotransmitter activity (antipsychotic drugs, narcan)

Forebrain

Cerebrum

Corpus callosum

Hypothalamus

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Cerebrum

Largest brain structure, left control right side of body and right controls left

• Two cerebral hemispheres connected by corpus callosum

• Most sensory, motor and cognitive processes

Corpus Callosum

Millions of myelinated axons connecting the brain’s hemispheres

• Pathway for communication between hemispheres

• If surgically severed to treat epilepsy, hemispheres cannot communicate directly

Lateralization

Each hemisphere specialized for handling certain types of cognitive tasks better than others

• Left hemisphere – verbal processing: language, speech, reading, writing

• Right hemisphere – nonverbal processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition

Hypothalamus

Involved in emotions and drives, vital for survival

Fear, hunger, thirst, and reproduction

Regulates autonomic nervous system

Homeostasis

Amygdala

Limbic system: emotion and memory circuit

• arousal, regulation of emotion, the initial emotional response to sensory information

• Plays important role in mediating anxiety and depression

• emotional memory

Hippocampus

Storage of new information in memory

• Comparing sensory information with what the brain expects about the world

• Enables formation of spatial memories for navigating the environment

Midbrain

Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

• mood, reward, abuse of substances (dopamine)

Parkinson’s disease: Degeneration of the ventral tegmental area

Cerebellum

Regulates movement and balance

• Involved in remembering simple skills, acquired reflexes

• Plays a part in analyzing sensory information

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Using caps with electrodes, EEG research measures precise timing of overall brain activities

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

Helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain using radioactive drug tracer

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Measures blood flow

Where neuronal cells are active, blood flow increases

Consciousness

One’s awareness of internal and external stimuli

Feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions