Geography Comprehensive Review: Physical and Human Geography

Complete set of 163 vocabulary flashcards covering plate tectonics, geomorphology, climate systems, sustainability, demography, geopolitics, mapping, and fieldwork methodologies based on the geography lecture transcript.

Lithosphere

The hard outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of the Earth's crust and the uppermost, rigid part of the mantle.

Tectonic Plates

The large, rigid slabs into which the lithosphere is divided that move very slowly over time.

Slab Pull

A primary mechanism of plate movement occurring when a heavy, dense oceanic plate sinks into the mantle and pulls the trailing plate along with it.

Divergent Plate Boundary

A boundary where two tectonic plates move apart from each other, allowing magma to rise and form new oceanic crust (e.g., Iceland).

Convergent Plate Boundary

A boundary where two tectonic plates move toward each other, leading to the formation of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

Subduction

The geological process where a heavy oceanic plate sinks beneath another plate, producing deep-sea trenches, earthquakes, and volcanoes (e.g., the Andes).

Continental Collision

The convergence of two continental plates where the crust crumples and is pushed upward to create high mountain chains (e.g., the Himalayas).

Transform Plate Boundary

A plate boundary where two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally, often triggering earthquakes (e.g., the San Andreas Fault in California).

Earthquake

Ground shaking produced when stress accumulates in crustal rock and is suddenly released.

Focus and Epicenter

The focus is the rupture point deep inside the Earth where an earthquake begins; the epicenter is the point on the ground surface directly above the focus.

Magma and Lava

Magma is molten rock located underground beneath the surface; lava is magma that has erupted onto the Earth's surface.

Volcano

An opening in the Earth's crust where magma erupts to the surface, discharging potentially hazardous ash, gases, and lava, while also generating fertile soil.

Tsunami

A massive sea wave caused primarily by powerful earthquakes that vertically displace the seafloor.

Igneous Rocks

Rocks formed through the cooling and solidification of molten rock (e.g., granite and basalt).

Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks formed when layers of sand, clay, or other mineral and organic deposits are compacted and cemented together (e.g., sandstone).

Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks formed when pre-existing rocks are fundamentally transformed by intense heat and pressure without undergoing complete melting (e.g., gneiss).

Rock Cycle

The continuous geological cycle in which rocks are broken down, transported, compressed, heated, or melted, transitioning from one rock type to another.

Weathering

The breakdown and decomposition of rocks and bedrock in place where they lie, without immediate transport.

Mechanical Weathering

Physical disintegration of rock into smaller fragments without altering the chemical composition of the rock's minerals.

Frost Wedging

A form of mechanical weathering where water seeps into rock cracks, freezes, expands, and fractures the surrounding rock.

Thermal Expansion (Insolation Weathering)

Mechanical weathering driven by extreme variations between heat and cold, causing rocks to expand, contract, and crack.

Pressure Release (Unloading)

Mechanical weathering occurring when deep-seated rocks expand and fracture after overlying rock layers are stripped away by erosion.

Chemical Weathering

The decomposition of rock minerals through chemical reactions with water or air (e.g., slightly acidic water dissolving limestone).

Erosion

The geological process by which ice, running water, wind, or waves wear away, detach, and transport rock and soil particles.

Deposition

The laying down or settling of sand, rock, and soil particles when moving water, glacial ice, or wind loses energy.

Superficial Deposits and Topsoil

Superficial deposits (løsmasser) are unconsolidated sediments like sand, gravel, and clay; topsoil (jordsmonn) is the organic-rich uppermost layer where plants grow.

Glacier

A large, persistent body of dense ice that moves slowly under its own weight and sculpts the surrounding landscape.

Glacial Abrasion

An erosional process where rocks frozen into the base of a glacier grind and polish the bedrock surface like sandpaper.

Glacial Plucking

An erosional process where a glacier freezes onto fractured bedrock blocks, loosens them, and carries them away.

U-Shaped Valley

A wide valley characterized by steep sides and a flat floor, carved out by glacial erosion.

Fjord

A glacially eroded U-shaped valley that has been drowned and inundated with seawater.

Cirque, Arête, and Horn

Glacial alpine landforms consisting of a cirque (a bowl-shaped rock basin), an arête (a sharp, narrow mountain ridge), and a horn (a pointed mountain peak).

Moraine

An accumulation of unsorted rock debris, gravel, and soil deposited directly by a glacier; terminal moraines form at the glacier's snout, and lateral moraines line its sides.

Glacial Erratic

A large boulder transported and dropped by a melting glacier far from its original geological bedrock source.

V-Shaped Valley

A narrow, steep-sided valley formed by a river actively cutting downwards into bedrock.

Meander

A winding curve or loop in a river, where water erodes the outer bank and deposits sediment along the inner bank.

Delta

A depositional landform of sand and sediment formed where a river enters an ocean or lake and abruptly loses velocity.

Floodplain

A low-lying, flat area of land adjacent to a river that is fertile for farming but highly susceptible to periodic flooding.

Societal Impact of Valleys and Fjords in Norway

Geographic features that offer opportunities for tourism and hydropower, while simultaneously complicating road construction and elevating flood and landslide hazards.

Weather

The state of the atmosphere at a specific moment in time, encompassing temperature, precipitation, wind, and cloudiness.

Climate

The typical, long-term statistical pattern of atmospheric weather conditions over an extended period, commonly averaged over $30$ years.

Four Climate Factors

The key geographic drivers of regional climate: latitude (proximity to the equator), elevation above sea level, distance from the ocean, and ocean currents.

Coastal vs. Inland Climate in Norway

The oceanic heat capacity, combined with warm ocean currents and prevailing onshore winds, keeps the Norwegian coast notably milder than inland regions.

Wind

The movement of air masses driven by differences in atmospheric pressure across regions.

Low-Pressure System

An atmospheric area where warm air ascends, cools, and condenses, frequently creating cloud cover and precipitation.

High-Pressure System

An atmospheric area where cool air sinks, generally producing stable weather conditions and clear, sunny skies.

Coriolis Effect

The apparent deflection of moving air caused by the Earth's rotation, turning winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.

Orographic Precipitation

Rainfall triggered when moist maritime air is forced over mountain ranges, cooling and precipitating as seen in Western Norway (Vestlandet).

Frontal Precipitation

Rainfall created when a warm, less-dense air mass is forced upward over a cold, dense air mass along a weather front.

Convective Precipitation

Localized, heavy rain showers occurring when strong solar heating warms the ground, prompting heated air parcels to rise rapidly.

Rain Shadow

A dry, sheltered area on the leeward side of a mountain range that receives minimal rain because air shed its moisture while rising up the windward slope.

Natural Greenhouse Effect

The natural atmospheric insulation where greenhouse gases absorb and retain infrared heat, preventing Earth from becoming freezing and uninhabitable.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The additional heat retained in the atmosphere due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases such as $CO_2$ and methane.

Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate Change

Human economic activities causing global warming, including fossil fuel combustion (oil, coal, gas), transport, heavy industry, and agriculture.

Consequences of Climate Change

Global planetary shifts such as climbing average temperatures, sea level rise, glacial melting, and alterations in storm and drought intensity.

Climate Impacts in Norway

National environmental changes causing more severe precipitation events, urban surface water flooding, river floods, and landslides.

Emission Reductions (Mitigation)

Measures aimed at lowering the release of greenhouse gases to constrain and limit future global warming.

Climate Adaptation

Proactive steps taken to adjust infrastructure and societies to climate changes, including reinforced flood barriers and resilient construction standards.

Vulnerability

The degree of susceptibility of individuals, communities, or locations to experiencing harm or devastation from hazardous events.

Risk

The overall probability and severity of potential harm, calculated from the interaction of hazards, exposed assets, and vulnerability.

Natural Resource

Any raw material or physical asset drawn from nature for human utility, including freshwater, forests, fish stocks, petroleum, and wind.

Renewable Resource

A natural resource that replenishes continuously and naturally over short periods, such as solar radiation and wind energy.

Non-Renewable Resource

A finite resource formed over immense geological timescales that cannot naturally regenerate at the pace of consumption (e.g., oil and minerals).

Conditionally Renewable Resource

A living or ecological resource that can replenish indefinitely provided human extraction does not exceed its natural renewal rate (e.g., timber and fisheries).

Sustainable Development

A development paradigm focused on satisfying contemporary societal needs without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their own needs.

Three Dimensions of Sustainability

The tripartite framework balancing ecological integrity (nature), economic viability (capital and jobs), and social equity (human rights and welfare).

Norwegian Hydropower Suitability

The convergence of steep alpine topography, abundant annual precipitation, and significant elevation drops that enables efficient hydroelectric generation in Norway.

Norwegian Petroleum Trade-Offs

The dilemma of oil and gas providing national revenue and employment while being finite, non-renewable, and driving greenhouse gas emissions.

Wind Energy Land Conflicts

Controversies where wind turbines generate green energy but consume expansive spatial footprints, disrupting habitats or land required by local users.

Consumption Life Cycle

The ecological pathway of consumer goods from raw material extraction, manufacturing, and transport to operational use and disposal; longevity saves resources.

UN Sustainable Development Goals 7, 12, and 13

Global development targets: Goal 7 represents Affordable and Clean Energy; Goal 12 represents Responsible Consumption and Production; Goal 13 represents Climate Action.

Sápmi

The cultural and ancestral homeland traditionally inhabited by the Indigenous Sámi people, extending across northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia.

Reindeer Husbandry Land Pressures

Friction arising because reindeer herds require seasonal pastures and migration corridors, which are fragmented by roads, wind farms, and mining sites.

Conflict of Interest

A dispute emerging when multiple stakeholders attempt to utilize the identical geographical territory for incompatible objectives.

The Fosen Case

A landmark legal conflict wherein Norway's Supreme Court ruled in 2021 that wind farm licensing violated the cultural practice rights of Sámi reindeer herders.

Wind Power in Reindeer Pastures

Renewable infrastructure delivering green electricity and local jobs, but compromising pristine wilderness and Indigenous Sámi reindeer grazing rights.

Strategic Value of the High North

The Arctic and Barents region containing fisheries, energy reserves, maritime trade lanes, and ecosystems where geopolitical and commercial priorities collide.

Consequences of Sea Ice Retreat

The melting of Arctic pack ice that permits shorter maritime transit routes while threatening endemic wildlife and increasing marine contamination hazards.

2020 Gjerdrum Landslide

A catastrophic quick clay landslide on December 30, 2020, in Gjerdrum, Norway, resulting in 11 fatalities (including an unborn child) and over $1\,600$ evacuations.

Marine Clay

Fine-grained clay deposited in post-glacial marine waters that ended up elevated on dry land following isostatic post-glacial rebound.

Quick Clay

A sensitive marine clay that collapses rapidly from a solid structure into a fluid, flowing mud slurry when agitated or disturbed.

Triggers of the Gjerdrum Landslide

Prolonged creek erosion carving out slope support, human land-use alterations affecting water drainage, and an exceptionally wet autumn destabilizing the soil.

Consequences of the Gjerdrum Disaster

The loss of human life, extensive destruction of residential housing, and widespread forced temporary displacements of local citizens.

Quick Clay Hazard Mitigation

Preventative safety protocols including ground surveys prior to construction, hazard mapping, active erosion and drainage control, and emergency planning.

Nature-Human Disaster Nexus

The realization demonstrated by the Gjerdrum disaster that underlying geology, weather events, and civil development interact to produce disasters.

Demography

The scientific discipline studying human populations, focusing on total numbers, geographic distribution, structure, and temporal variations.

Birth Rate and Death Rate

The statistical count of live births or deaths per $1\,000$ individuals within a given population across one year.

Rate of Natural Increase

The demographic expansion metric calculated strictly by subtracting the number of deaths from the number of births.

Total Population Change

The net demographic change determined by: births $-$ deaths $+$ immigrants $-$ emigrants.

Demographic Transition Model

A theoretical model tracing the historical shifts in fertility and mortality rates as societies modernize, industrialize, and develop economically.

DTM Stage 1

A demographic phase defined by high birth rates coupled with high death rates, causing slow, minimal population expansion.

DTM Stage 2

A demographic phase defined by high birth rates and plunging mortality rates, driving rapid and explosive population growth.

DTM Stage 3

A demographic phase where birth rates drop substantially while death rates remain low, decelerating the pace of population growth.

DTM Stage 4

A demographic phase marked by low birth rates and low death rates, stabilizing overall population growth at modest rates.

DTM Stage 5

A demographic phase characterized by very low fertility rates falling below mortality rates, leading to an aging population and contraction without migration.

Population Pyramid

A graphical bar chart illustrating the distribution of a population segmented by age groups and biological sex.

Population Pyramid Base Shape

A broad pyramid base signifies a large youthful cohort and high fertility; a narrow base reflects few children, reduced fertility, and aging demographics.

Migration

The movement of people relocating their residence internally within a country or crossing sovereign international borders.

Push Factor

An adverse condition that compels or motivates individuals to leave their original place of residence (e.g., armed conflict).

Pull Factor

An attractive condition that draws migrants toward a prospective host country or region (e.g., employment prospects and safety).