Theories of Personality: Erikson, Allport, Cattell, Trait Approaches, Maslow, and Rogers

Comprehensive review flashcards covering major personality theories: Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages, Gordon Allport's trait theory, Raymond Cattell's factor-analytic approach, Hans Eysenck's PEN model, the Big Five, HEXACO, the Dark Triad, Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and Carl Rogers's person-centered theory.

Who is the theorist shown in this portrait, known for formulating the eight psychosocial stages of personality development?

Erik Erikson

What is Erikson's epigenetic principle of maturation?

The principle stating that human development is governed by a genetically determined sequence of stages, depending on hereditary factors.

How does Erikson define a developmental crisis?

A turning point faced at each developmental stage involving a conflict that confronts the person with adaptive and maladaptive ways of coping.

What are the conflicts and basic strengths associated with Erikson's first four psychosocial stages?

1. Oral-sensory (Birth–1): Trust vs. mistrust; Basic strength: Hope.
2. Muscular-anal (1–3): Autonomy vs. doubt, shame; Basic strength: Will.
3. Locomotor-genital (3–5): Initiative vs. guilt; Basic strength: Purpose.
4. Latency (6–11): Industriousness vs. inferiority; Basic strength: Competence.

What are the conflicts and basic strengths associated with Erikson's last four psychosocial stages?

5. Adolescence (12–18): Identity cohesion vs. role confusion; Basic strength: Fidelity.
6. Young adulthood (18–35): Intimacy vs. isolation; Basic strength: Love.
7. Adulthood (35–55): Generativity vs. stagnation; Basic strength: Care.
8. Maturity–old age (55+ years): Ego integrity vs. despair; Basic strength: Wisdom.

What gender differences did Erikson observe in children's play constructions during research on his theory?

Girls constructed static, peaceful scenes (bottom), whereas boys constructed action-oriented, tall structures (top).

What are James Marcia's five statuses during an adolescent's search for ego identity?

1. Identity achievement: Committed to occupational and ideological choices.
2. Moratorium: Vague commitment.
3. Foreclosure: Expressed commitment without prior exploration.
4. Identity diffusion: No commitment; may or may not have experienced a crisis.
5. Alienated achievement: Experienced a crisis, but not committed.

What are the four developmental stages described in the Cross Racial Identity Scale?

1. Pre-encounter
2. Encounter
3. Immersion-emersion
4. Internalization

In Erikson's concept of maldevelopment, what is the distinction between maladaptive and malignant tendencies?

A maladaptive tendency occurs when only the positive coping tendency is present in the ego, whereas a malignant tendency occurs when only the negative coping tendency is present.

Who is the theorist shown in this portrait, recognized as the first person to teach a formal university course on personality in the United States?

Gordon Allport

How did Gordon Allport define personality?

The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine characteristic behavior and thought.

Why did Gordon Allport view adult personality as discrete or discontinuous from childhood personality?

He argued that there is no continuum between childhood and adulthood: infant behavior is driven by primitive biological urges and reflexes, whereas adult personality is psychological in nature and not constrained by childhood experiences.

How did Allport distinguish among cardinal, central, and secondary personal dispositions?

Cardinal traits are pervasive and touch almost every aspect of a person's life; central traits are the 5 to 10 themes that best describe our behavior; secondary traits are displayed much less consistently and less conspicuously.

What is functional autonomy of motives, and what are its two levels according to Allport?

The concept that motives in a normal, mature adult are independent of childhood experiences. The two levels are perseverative functional autonomy (low-level, routine behaviors persisting without external reward) and propriate functional autonomy (motives unique to the individual, aligned with values, self-image, and lifestyle).

What term did Allport choose to represent the self or ego, and what are its developmental stages?

He chose the term 'proprium.' Its stages are: 1. Bodily self (0–1 years), 2. Self-identity (1–2 years), 3. Self-esteem (2–3 years), 4. Extension of self (4–5 years), 5. Self-image (5–6 years), 6. Self as a rational coper (6–12 years), 7. Propriate striving (12–18 years), and 8. Adulthood.

What is the difference between expressive behavior and coping behavior according to Allport?

Expressive behavior is spontaneous, has no specific purpose, reflects basic personality traits, and is usually displayed without awareness. Coping behavior is consciously planned, directed toward a purpose, and intended to bring about changes in the environment.

What are the six categories of personal values measured by Allport's Study of Values test?

Theoretical, Economic, Aesthetic, Social, Political, and Religious values.

Who is the theorist shown in this portrait, known for utilizing factor analysis to develop the 16 Personality Factor (16 PF) test?

Raymond Cattell

What was Raymond Cattell's primary goal in studying personality?

To predict how a person will respond to a given stimulus situation using a scientific, empirical, factor-analytic approach.

In Cattell's system, what is the distinction between surface traits and source traits?

Surface traits are unstable, impermanent behavioral characteristics composed of multiple elements; source traits are single, stable, permanent basic factors that account for behavior.

What are the three data collection types described by Cattell (L-data, Q-data, and T-data)?

L-data: Life record ratings of behaviors observed in real-life situations. Q-data: Self-report questionnaire ratings of personal characteristics, attitudes, and interests. T-data: Data derived from objective personality tests resistant to faking.

Based on Cattell's twin and kinship studies, what percentage of personality is attributable to genetics versus the environment?

Approximately one-third ($33.3\%$) of personality is genetically based, and two-thirds ($66.7\%$) is determined by social and environmental influences.

What are the three superfactors in Hans Eysenck's PEN model of personality?

P: Psychoticism versus impulse control E: Extraversion versus introversion N: Neuroticism versus emotional stability

What biological explanation did Eysenck suggest for differences in extraversion versus introversion?

Extraverts have a lower base level of cortical arousal than introverts, leading them to seek out stimulation; introverts have higher cortical arousal and react more strongly to sensory stimulation.

What are the five factors that comprise McCrae and Costa's Five-Factor Model of personality?

Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness (to experience), Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.

What additional dimension does Ashton and Lee's HEXACO model add to the Five-Factor framework?

Honesty/Humility (H), defined as being sincere, honest, and faithful versus greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, and boastful.

What three traits constitute the Dark Triad introduced by Paulhus and Williams?

1. Narcissism (extreme selfishness, inflated sense of self, need for admiration)
2. Machiavellianism (cunning, manipulative, deceptive behavior)
3. Psychopathy (callousness, lack of empathy, antisocial behavior, impulsive charm)

Who is the humanistic theorist shown in this portrait, known for proposing the needs-hierarchy theory?

Abraham Maslow

What are the five innate (instinctoid) needs in Maslow's hierarchy, from lowest to highest priority?

1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Belongingness and love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization need

In Maslow's theory, how do deficit (deficiency) needs differ from growth (being) needs?

Deficit needs are the lower-order needs (physiological and safety) whose lack of satisfaction produces a deficiency; growth needs are the higher-order needs (self-actualization) that appear later in life, focus on personal potential, and require good external conditions.

According to Maslow, what conditions are necessary to satisfy the self-actualization need?

Freedom from constraints imposed by society and oneself; not being distracted by lower-order needs; security in self-image and relationships (loving and being loved); and having realistic knowledge of one's strengths, weaknesses, virtues, and vices.

What is the difference between metamotivation and metapathology in Maslow's theory?

Metamotivation is maximizing personal potential rather than striving for a specific goal object (fulfilling metaneeds such as truth and goodness); metapathology is the failure to satisfy metaneeds, producing a lack of psychological well-being (such as cynicism, despair, or depression).

What is the Jonah complex as described by Maslow?

The fear that maximizing one's potential will lead to a situation that one cannot handle, which inhibits self-actualization.

According to Ryan and Deci's Self-Determination Theory, what are the three basic innate needs that drive intrinsic motivation?

Competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Who is the humanistic psychologist shown in this portrait, known for developing client-centered/person-centered therapy?

Carl Rogers

What is Carl Rogers's organismic valuing process?

The ongoing process by which an individual evaluates life experiences in terms of how well they hinder or foster actualization and growth.

What is the difference between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard according to Rogers?

Unconditional positive regard is approval and acceptance granted to a person regardless of their behavior; conditional positive regard is approval and love granted only when the person exhibits desirable behaviors and attitudes.

How did Rogers define incongruence and its effect on psychological adjustment?

Incongruence is the discrepancy between one's self-concept and one's actual experiential world; experiences incongruent with the self-concept become threatening and cause psychological maladjustment.

What are the core characteristics of a fully functioning (self-actualizing) person according to Rogers?

Awareness of all experiences and openness to feelings; freshness of appreciation; trust in one's own thoughts, feelings, and behavior; freedom of choice without inhibitions; creativity and spontaneity; and a continual need to grow and actualize.

How did Rogers use the Q-sort technique to evaluate changes during person-centered therapy, and what were the findings?

He compared a client's perceived self to their ideal self. Research demonstrated that the discrepancy decreased over the course of therapy, with the average correlation increasing from $r = -0.01$ before therapy to $r = 0.31$ after therapy.

What was Carl Rogers's position on the issue of free will versus determinism?

Rogers clearly emphasized free will: fully functioning persons have free choice in creating their selves, and no aspect of their personality is predetermined.