Psychology: Brain, Nervous System, Sensation, Perception, and Cognition

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering introductory psychology topics including research history, neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, sensory processing, sleep, memory, conditioning, cognition, and motivation.

How did Wilhelm Wundt contribute to early psychology?

He established the first psychological laboratory in Germany, utilized introspection to reduce behavior to its most basic elements, and founded structuralism.

What was William James's approach to psychology?

He emphasized functionalism, an approach focused on how various actions and consciousness help a person or animal adapt to their environment.

What was the significance of Mamie Phipps Clark's doll study?

It investigated the effects of internalized racism in Black children and was cited in Brown v. Board of Education to help desegregate schools.

What is the biological perspective in psychology?

A perspective focused on how bodily events—such as hormones and physical events across the nervous system—affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief while ignoring, trivializing, or forgetting information that disconfirms it.

Why can the spinal cord produce reflexes before the brain processes them?

Because nerves in the body register signals in the spinal cord first, before the brain can process them.

What is the functional difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

The sympathetic system mobilizes the body for action and energy output in fight-or-flight situations, whereas the parasympathetic system acts like a brake to slow things down and conserve energy.

What distinguishes the somatic nervous system from the autonomic nervous system?

_______ connects to sensory receptors to permit voluntary actions, while the ________regulates smooth muscles, blood vessels, glands, and internal organs.

What roles do glial cells play in the nervous system?

They hold neurons in place, provide them with nutrients, protect the brain from toxic agents, and enhance the formation and maintenance of neural connections.

How do dendrites differ from axons?

______ receive and transmit messages toward the cell body, whereas _____ transmit messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or gland cells.

How do GABA and glutamate differ in their neural effects?

_____ is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter that acts as the brain's brake pedal to calm neural activity, while_____ is the major excitatory neurotransmitter released by approximately $90\%$ of the brain's neurons.

What behavioral outcomes are associated with low and high levels of norepinephrine?

Low levels are associated with a lack of concentration and implicated in ADD; high levels are associated with euphoria, panic attacks, hyperactivity, and ADHD.

What are the primary physiological roles of endorphins?

They reduce pain, promote pleasure, and have chemical effects similar to opiates.

What is the primary function of melatonin, and where is it secreted?

It is secreted by the pineal gland to regulate daily biological rhythms and promote sleep.

What is a key temporal limitation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in brain research?

An MRI can localize brain activity relatively precisely in space (where), but it cannot determine exactly when it is happening.

What are the primary functions of the medulla and pons?

The medulla controls involuntary bodily functions such as breathing and heart rate, while the pons regulates sleeping, waking, and dreaming.

What functions are governed by the cerebellum?

It contributes to balance, coordinates muscles for smooth and precise movement, and is involved in classical conditioning and remembering simple tasks and skills.

Why is the hypothalamus referred to as the 'Body Boss'?

It constantly monitors the body's current physiological state and issues instructions to maintain homeostasis.

How do the functions of the amygdala and hippocampus differ?

The amygdala assesses emotional impact and sensory stimuli as the brain's fear center, whereas the hippocampus binds sensory inputs together to store new information in memory.

What primary functions are associated with each of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Occipital contains the visual cortex; parietal contains the somatosensory cortex; temporal contains the auditory cortex; frontal contains the motor cortex and coordinates muscle orders.

What is neural pruning?

A process where synaptic connections that are not useful or active wither away.

What is Johannes Müller's doctrine of anatomical coding?

The principle that different sensory modalities exist because signals received by sense organs stimulate different nerve pathways leading to distinct areas of the brain.

How does an absolute threshold differ from a difference threshold?

The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of physical energy reliably detected by an observer, while the difference threshold is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

How do rods and cones differ in quantity, function, and adaptation time?

Rods ($80\text{--}120\text{ million}$) are long, narrow, sensitive to light, and adapt in $20\text{ mins}$; cones ($5\text{--}7\text{ million}$) are cone-shaped, responsible for color vision in the fovea, and adapt in $10\text{ mins}$.

How does the opponent process theory explain color vision?

It explains second-stage color processing in retinal ganglion cells, thalamus, and cortex, where opponent process cells respond to short wavelengths but are inhibited by long wavelengths, or vice versa.

What are the four Gestalt grouping principles described in the notes?

Proximity (near objects group together), Closure (filling gaps for complete forms), Similarity (alike objects belong together), and Continuity (lines/patterns perceived as continuous in time or space).

How is sound vibration converted into neural signals in the ear?

Vibrations strike the eardrum, pass through the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, create waves in cochlear fluid, move the basilar membrane, and bend hair cell cilia in the Organ of Corti to fire signals along the auditory nerve.

How is flavor defined relative to taste?

Taste detects chemical stimuli on the tongue (salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami, ologustus), whereas flavor is defined by the scent of gases emitted from food reaching olfactory receptors.

What does the gate control theory of pain state?

It states that pain experience depends on whether pain impulses pass through a neurological 'gate' in the spinal cord to reach the brain.

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

A biological clock located in a tiny cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that governs circadian rhythms in response to light and dark cues.

What is the difference between recall and recognition?

______is retrieving and reproducing previously encountered material (e.g., essay exams), while ________ is identifying previously encountered material as familiar, correct, or incorrect.

What is the 'magic number theory' regarding working memory capacity?

It suggests that working memory holds approximately seven items ($7 \pm 2$), which decay after about $30\text{ seconds}$ unless transferred to long-term memory.

How do semantic memories differ from episodic memories in explicit memory?

Semantic memories are general knowledge, facts, rules, and concepts; episodic memories are personally experienced events and the context in which they occurred.

Which two adrenal hormones enhance memory consolidation during emotional arousal or stress?

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

How do algorithms differ from heuristics in problem-solving?

An algorithm is a detailed, guaranteed problem-solving strategy that produces a solution, whereas a heuristic is a rule of thumb that guides action and reduces cognitive effort without guaranteeing an optimal solution.

What is the difference between crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence?

Crystallized intelligence is cognitive knowledge acquired over a lifetime, while fluid intelligence is the capacity to reason and use information to solve novel problems, which decreases with age.

What is the set point in the biology of weight?

An individual's genetically influenced weight range that is maintained by biological mechanisms regulating metabolism, fat cells, and food intake.

What function does the anorexigenic protein leptin perform?

Secreted by fat cells, leptin signals the brain that enough energy has been restored from food intake, thereby decreasing hunger levels.

What hormonal roles do vasopressin and oxytocin play in social attachment?

Vasopressin promotes male bonding and protective behaviors, while oxytocin (the cuddle hormone) facilitates trust, attachment, maternal nursing, and bonding in both men and women.