Psychology 3/4 Exam Revision

Aim

A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation

Research hypothesis

A testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables (events or characteristics)

Theory

A body of interrelated concepts (ideas) that attempt to explain interrelated observations and make predictions about future eventss

Model

The representation of how some behaviour and/or a mental process(es) could, should or does occur

Controlled experiment

An experimental design to test the relationship between an independent variable and a dependant variable, whilst controlling all other variables

Variable

Something that can change in amount or type and is measured

Independant variable

The variable that is manipulated in order to measure its effect on the dependent variable

Dependant variable

The variable that the researcher uses to observe and measure the effects of the IV

Controlled variable

A variable that is considered to have an effect on the dependent variable in an experiment so it needs to be held constant (controlled) to remove its potential effects

Operationalising

Involves defining how the IV and DV will be manipulated or measured in the experiment

Scientific investigation methodology

Refers to the specific techniques used to collect and analyse data in an investigation; that is, what research method is used to conduct a scientific investigation

Population

Refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn and to which the researcher will seek to generalise (apply) the results of their investigation

Sample

Is a subset or part of a population that is selected for research purposes

Sampling

The process by which a subset or part of the population is selected for an investigation

Target population

The population of research interest

Representative sample

A sample that closely resembles the population from which it is drawn in key characteristics

Biased sample

When a sample does not adequately represent the key characteristics of its population

Law of large numbers

A law suggesting that as the sample size increases, the attributes (characteristics) of the sample more closely reflect the attributes of the population from which the sample is drawn

Random sampling

A sampling technique that ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample

Stratified sampling

The process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups in such a way that each subgroup is represented

Strata

The dividing of a population to be sampled into different subgroups

Stratum

The selection of a seperate sample from each subgroup in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest

Experimental group

A group of participants that is exposed to the IV under investigation

Control group

A group not exposed to the IV under investigation

Random allocation

A procedure used to place participants in groups (or conditions)so that they are as likely to be in one group as the other

Between subject experimental design

Also called independent groups, is an experimental design in which, each participant is randomly allocated to one or two (or more) groups or conditions and provides one score for data analysis

Within subjects experimental design

Also called repeated measures, is an experimental design in which, each participant is in both the experimental and control groups or all the treatment conditions

Mixed experimental design

Combines features of both a between subjects design and a within subjects design

Correlational study

A study designed to investigate the relationship that exists between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher

Correlation

A term used to describe the degree of a relationship between two variables

Positive correlation

Two variables change (vary) in the same direction - as one variable increases, the other variable tends. to increase

Negative correlation

Two variables change in opposite directions - as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease

Self-report

A participant’s answers to questions presented by the researcher

Observational study

Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation of the behaviour being observed

Case study

An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation

Simulation studies

Involve reproducing situations of research interest in a realistic way to investigate the behaviour and/or mental processes of individuals in that environment

Random errors/chance errors

Errors due to some chance factor or chance variation in a measurement

Systematic errors/constant errors

Errors produced by some factor that consistently favours one condition rather than another

Personal errors/human errors

Errors which are a fault or mistake by the researcher

Uncertainty

Refers to a measurement that reflects a lack of exact knowledge of the value of the quantity being measured

Accuracy

Relates to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured

Precision

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other

Extraneous variable

A variable other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV and therefore may affect the results

Confounding variables

A variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV which cannot be separated from that of the IV

Participant variables

Personal characteristics that individual participants bring to an experiment and which could influence their responses

Situational variables

External factors (other than the IV) associated with the experimental setting that may influence participant responses and therefore the results

Order effect

Occurs when performance on the DV is influenced by the specific order in which the experimental tasks are presented rather than the IV

Practice effects

The influence on performance (the DV) that arises from repeating and/or prior experience with a task, including the test materials, procedures and settings

Carryover effects

The influences that a particular task has on performance in a task that follow it

Counterbalancing

Involves systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a balanced way to reduce or avoid the unwanted effects on performance of any one order

Demand characteristics

Cues in an experiment that may influence or bias a participant’s response, thereby distorting the results

Experimenter effect

Refers to any influence the experimenter may have on the results of their investigation

Placebo effect

Occurs when there is a change in a participant’s behaviour due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance with that belief, rather than to the effect of the IV

Ethics

Refers to standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct

Ethical concepts

Beneficence, integrity, justice, non-maleficence, respect

Beneficence

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

Integrity

The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

Justice

The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

Non-maleficence

Involves avoiding causation of harm. However, as positions or courses of actions in scientific research may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that. the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disprportionate to the benfits from any position or course of action

Respect

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary

Ethical guidelines

Confidentiality, debriefing, informed consent procedures

Confidentiality

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements

Debriefing

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participants leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any questions participants have are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study

Informed consent procedures

Ensure that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this

Use of deception in research

Only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment

Voluntary participation

Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved

Withdrawal rights

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty

Primary data

Information collected directly from the source by the researcher for their own specific purpose, collected from the original source for the first time by the researcher

Secondary data

Information that was not collected directly by the current researcher but was collected at an earlier time by someone else

Quantitive data

Information that is expressed numerically

Qualitative data

Information that is not expressed numerically

Objective data

Information that is observable, measurable, verifiable and free from the personal bias or the researcher

Subjective data

Information that is based on personal opinion, interpretation, point of view or judgment

Reliability

Refers to the extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent, dependable and stable

Repeatability

Refers to the degree to which a specific research investigation obtains similar results when it is conducted again under the same conditons on all occasions

Reproducibility

Refers to how close the results are to each other when an investigation is replicated under changed conditions

Validity

Refers to the extent to which a measure accurately measures what it is supposed to be measuring

Internal validity

Refers to the extent to which an investigation actually investigated what it set out to investigate and/or claims to have investigated

External validity

Refers to the extent to which the results obtained for a study can be applied beyond the sample that generated them, specifically to individuals in a different setting and over time

Central nervous system (CN)

Comprises the brain and its extension, the spinal cord. Its primary or overarching roles are to process information received from the body’s internal and external environments and to activate appropriate responses

Brain

An intricate network of cells that plays a vital role in processing information received through neural pathways from the body and in directing actions within the body. It continuously receives and analyses sensory information, responding by controlling all bodily actions and functions

Neural pathway

Comprises one or more circuits of interconnected neurons that form a communication network. Some pathways span short distances and others extend from one side of the brain to the other, also connecting the brain to the parts of the nervous system and the body

Spinal cord

Long, thin bundle of nerve fibres that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back, linking the brain and the parts of the body below the neck

Spinal cord major functions

Receive sensory information from the body and send these messages to the brain for processing and receive motor information from the brain and send it to relevant parts of the body to control muscles, glands and internal organs so that appropriate actions can be taken

Ascending tracts

Neural pathways that carry sensory information up to the brain

Descending tract

Neural pathways for motor information, which leaves the brain and travels down the spinal cord to exit via the spinal nerves to their destination in specific muscles, glands and/or organs

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Th entire network of nerves located outside the CNS, extending from the top of the head, throughout the body to the tips of the fingers and toes and to all parts of the skin

Role of peripheral nervous system

Carries information to the CNS from the body’s muscles, organs and glands and from the sensroy organs and carries information from the CNS to the body’s muscles, organs and glands

Peripheral nervous system sub-divisions

Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

A sub-division of the peripheral nervous system comprising a network of nerves that carries sensory information to the CNS and motor information from the CNS

Sensory information pathway

Received at sensory receptor sites in the body (skin, muscles, joints and tendons) and carried along the sensory neural pathways by sensory neurons

Motor information pathway

Carried along motor neural pathways by motor neurons to skeletal muscles to control their activity by causing them to contract or relax. Skeletal muscles are attached to our bones and respond to messages from the CNS to initiate, change or stop movement

Afferent information

Sensory information coming into the CNS (incoming information)

Efferent information

Motor information leaving the CNS (outgoing information)

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A sub-division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to the body’s internal organs (such as the heart, stomach and liver) and glands (such as sweat, salivary and adrenal glands), providing feedback to the brain about their activities

Reason for ANS being ‘autonomous’

Because many of the organs, glands and processes under it control are self-regulating and thereore occur without conscious effort and are not usually under our voluntary control

Visceral muscles

Muscles involved in the activity of internal organs and gland, that have built-in mechanisms for generating and maintaining their activity and do not depend on voluntary control by the brain

Autonomic nervous system sub-divisions

Sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous stem and enteric nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

Sub-division of autonomic nervous system, activates internal muscles, organs and glands to prepare the body for vigorous activity or to deal with a stressful or threatening situation. Initiated by a stressor or fear stimulus that enhances survival by providing an immediate response

Changes due to sympathetic nervous system

Heart rate and blood pressure increase, and your breathing rate increases so more oxygen can be taken in, sugar and fat are released from storage to provide instant energy to the skeletal muscles, pupils dilate to allow more light to enter the eye and enhance vision, sweat glands increase production of sweat to cool the body, and digestion is slowed.