PS 100 trial flashcards

[Wk1] Politics (definition)

The process by which groups make collective decisions about public matters, involving conflict, cooperation, and the use of power over who gets what, when, and how (Lasswell).

Politics

"Who gets what, when, and how", distribution of scarce resources and values.

[Wk1] What makes a behavior "political"?

It involves a group or public (not purely private), a disagreement or decision about public policy or shared resources, and the use or pursuit of power or authority.

[Wk1] Three core elements of any political event

Public interest (a collective/public stake), public policy (a decision or rule affecting the group), and power (the ability to influence or enforce outcomes). Confirm exact wording against your lecture slides.

[Wk1] Public policy

A course of action, rule, or decision made by government (or on behalf of a public) to address a collective problem.

[Wk1] Public interest

The shared well-being or common good of a community, as opposed to the interests of only one person or group.

[Wk1] Power (political)

The ability to get others to do something they otherwise would not do, or to shape outcomes and decisions.

[Wk1] Authority

The recognized right to make decisions and be obeyed; power that is seen as legitimate.

[Wk1] Example of a political vs. non-political behavior

Choosing a personal breakfast is not political; a city council voting on school lunch funding is, because it is a public decision involving power and competing interests.

[Wk1] Political Science (definition)

The systematic study of politics - how power, decisions, institutions, and values shape who gets what in a society, using evidence and analysis.

[Wk1] Four subfields of Political Science

American politics, comparative politics, international relations, and political theory (normative/philosophy). Some instructors list political methodology as a fourth or fifth; check your slides.

[Wk1] American politics (subfield)

Study of U.S. institutions, behavior, and policy such as Congress, the presidency, courts, elections, and public opinion.

[Wk1] Comparative politics (subfield)

Compares political systems, institutions, and behavior across countries to find patterns and explanations.

[Wk1] International relations (subfield)

Study of interactions among states and other global actors: war, diplomacy, trade, international law, and organizations.

[Wk1] Political theory (subfield)

Study of the ideas, values, and arguments behind politics: justice, freedom, legitimacy, and what government ought to do.

[Wk2] Three major components of Political Science

Political values, phenomena, judgement

[Wk2] Three major tasks of Political Science

Ethical recommendation → how things should be, Empirical understanding → how things are, Prudential judgement → how things can be done 

[Wk2] Normative political science

Asks what ought to be; evaluates politics using values and moral argument (justice, rights, the good society).

[Wk2] Empirical political science

Asks what is; uses observable evidence to describe, explain, and predict political behavior and outcomes.

Facts tell us what is, not what should be; value judgments (e.g., how much inequality is acceptable) require moral argument, not just data.

[Wk2] Why can't empirical evidence alone settle normative questions?

[Wk2] Quantitative evidence/methods

Numerical data analyzed statistically, such as surveys, voting records, and experiments; good for patterns across many cases and testing generalizations.

[Wk2] Qualitative evidence/methods

Non-numerical evidence such as interviews, case studies, archival documents, and observation; good for depth, context, and mechanisms.

[Wk2] Large-N vs. small-N study

Large-N uses many cases (usually quantitative) to generalize; small-N uses few cases (usually qualitative) to explore detail and process.

[Wk2] Criteria of good evidence

Relevant, reliable, appropriate

[Wk2] Validity

Whether a measure or study actually captures the concept it claims to measure.

[Wk2] Reliability

Whether a measure gives consistent results when repeated under the same conditions.

[Wk2] Representative sample

A sample that reflects the larger population so findings can be generalized.

[Wk2] Replicability

Whether other researchers can repeat the study using the same methods and get similar results.

Quantitative - a large-N survey with statistical analysis.

[Wk2] Which method fits: "How do the views of all U.S. voters shift before elections?"

Qualitative example

a case study using interviews and documents.

[Wk2] Scientific method (steps applied to politics)

Ask a question, review existing research, form a hypothesis, collect and analyze evidence, draw conclusions, and share results for scrutiny.

[Wk2] Hypothesis

A testable, specific prediction about the relationship between variables.

[Wk2] Independent variable (IV)

The presumed cause; the variable that is expected to influence another.

[Wk2] Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome being explained; it depends on the independent variable.

[Wk2] Example of IV and DV

Hypothesis: higher education raises voter turnout. IV = education level; DV = voter turnout.

[Wk2] Correlation vs. causation

Correlation means two variables move together; causation means one produces change in the other. Correlation alone does not prove causation.

[Wk2] Confounding (lurking) variable

A third factor related to both IV and DV that can create a misleading appearance of a causal link.

[Wk2] Operationalization

Defining an abstract concept in concrete, measurable terms (e.g., "political participation" = voting + donating + attending meetings).

[Wk2] Theory (in political science)

A systematic explanation of why and how political phenomena occur, from which hypotheses are drawn.

[Wk2] Falsifiability

A claim is scientific if it could in principle be shown wrong by evidence.

[Wk3] Why study political theory?

It clarifies the values, concepts, and justifications behind political choices, helps evaluate institutions and policies, and addresses questions evidence alone cannot answer.

[Wk3] Role of political theory within political science

Provides the concepts (justice, freedom, legitimacy) and normative standards that empirical research uses and that guide judgments about what government should do.

[Wk3] Contested concept

A concept (e.g., freedom, equality, justice, democracy) whose meaning people legitimately disagree about because it depends on underlying values.

[Wk3] How do values and contested concepts shape political disagreement?

People may agree on facts yet disagree because they define or prioritize key values differently (e.g., what "fairness" requires).

[Wk3] Negative freedom (liberty)

Freedom from interference or coercion by others, especially government (Isaiah Berlin).

[Wk3] Positive freedom (liberty)

Freedom to act on your goals and realize your potential, which may require resources, education, or support.

[Wk3] Formal (legal) equality

Everyone has the same legal rights and is treated the same under the law.

[Wk3] Equality of opportunity

Everyone should have a fair chance to compete and succeed, regardless of background.

[Wk3] Equality of outcome

Aims for similar results or material conditions across people, often via redistribution.

[Wk3] Distributive justice

Fairness in how benefits, burdens, and resources are allocated in society.

[Wk3] Competing principles of distributive justice

Equality (everyone gets the same), merit/desert (reward effort or contribution), need (help those who need most), and entitlement (respect fair acquisition and transfer).

[Wk3] Procedural justice

Fairness of the processes used to make decisions and resolve disputes.

[Wk3] Retributive (corrective) justice

Fair punishment or remedy for wrongdoing.

[Wk3] Rawls's veil of ignorance

A thought experiment: choose rules for society without knowing your own position; Rawls argued this leads to protecting basic liberties and helping the least advantaged.

[Wk3] Utilitarianism

Judges policies by whether they produce the greatest overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number.

[Wk3] Nozick's entitlement theory

Justice means respecting individual rights and just acquisition/transfer of property; heavy redistribution is a rights violation.

[Wk3] Example of values in tension: freedom vs. equality

Redistributive taxes reduce economic inequality but may limit individuals' freedom to keep their earnings.

[Wk3] Example of values in tension: liberty vs. security

Surveillance may increase safety but reduce privacy and personal freedom.

[Wk3] Example of values in tension: majority rule vs. minority rights

Democratic majorities can pass laws that harm minorities, so constitutions and courts often protect rights.

[Wk4] Good society (political theory)

An ideal community arranged so its members can live well, flourish, and achieve justice, according to a theory's values.

[Wk4] Plato's major work on politics

The Republic.

[Wk4] Plato's view of justice

Justice exists when each part of society (and each part of the soul) does the job it is suited for and no other.

[Wk4] Plato's three classes

Rulers/guardians (wisdom), auxiliaries/warriors (courage), and producers (moderation, economic work).

[Wk4] Philosopher-kings

Plato's ideal rulers: people with wisdom and knowledge of the Good who govern in the interest of all.

[Wk4] Plato's critique of democracy

Rule by the masses can lead to rule by ignorance, demagogues, and disorder, since most people lack the knowledge to govern well.

[Wk4] Theory of Forms (Plato)

True reality consists of perfect, unchanging ideas (Forms), such as the Good; the physical world is only an imperfect copy.

[Wk4] Aristotle's major work on politics

Politics.

[Wk4] Aristotle: "man is a political animal"

Humans fulfill their nature only in a political community (the polis); we are naturally social and need the state to live well.

[Wk4] Aristotle's method vs. Plato's

Aristotle was more empirical, studying many actual constitutions; Plato reasoned from ideal Forms and an ideal state.

[Wk4] Aristotle's six regimes

Good forms: monarchy, aristocracy, polity. Corrupt forms: tyranny, oligarchy, democracy. Classified by the number who rule and whether they rule for the common good.

[Wk4] Aristotle's preferred regime (polity)

A mixed constitution led by a large middle class, balancing rich and poor, which tends to be stable.

[Wk4] Eudaimonia

Human flourishing or the good life, which Aristotle saw as the aim of politics and living virtuously.

[Wk4] Plato vs. Aristotle on political order

Plato: rule by a wise elite in an ideal, unified state. Aristotle: practical, mixed government with rule of law and a strong middle class.

[Wk4] Hobbes (key ideas)

State of nature is a war of all against all; people consent to an absolute sovereign (Leviathan) to secure peace and safety.

[Wk4] Locke (key ideas)

Natural rights to life, liberty, and property; government by consent with limited powers; people may overthrow a government that violates rights.

[Wk4] Rousseau (key ideas)

Legitimate government rests on the general will of the people; social inequality and private property corrupt natural goodness.

[Wk4] Machiavelli (key ideas)

The Prince: rulers must be pragmatic and willing to use cunning or force to maintain order and the state, separating politics from conventional morality.

[Wk4] Social contract

The idea that legitimate government arises from an agreement among individuals to give up some freedom in exchange for order and protection.

[Wk4] State of nature

A hypothetical condition without government used to explain why government is needed and what rights people have.

[Wk4] Compare Hobbes and Locke

Both use a state of nature and consent; Hobbes sees it as violent and favors a powerful sovereign, while Locke sees natural rights and favors limited, accountable government.

[Wk4] Power vs. authority

Power is the ability to influence or compel; authority is power accepted as legitimate.

[Wk4] Legitimacy

The widely held belief that a government or ruler has the right to rule.

[Wk4] Max Weber's three types of legitimate authority

Traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational.

[Wk4] Traditional authority

Legitimacy based on long-standing customs and inherited status (e.g., hereditary monarchy).

[Wk4] Charismatic authority

Legitimacy based on a leader's extraordinary personal qualities and appeal (e.g., a revolutionary or religious leader).

[Wk4] Legal-rational authority

Legitimacy based on impersonal laws and procedures; officials hold power through office (e.g., a modern elected president).

[Wk5] Political ideology

A set of connected beliefs about human nature, society, and government that guides political goals and proposed policies.

[Wk5] Liberalism (classical) core ideas

Individual liberty, natural rights, consent of the governed, rule of law, limited government, private property, and markets.

[Wk5] Modern (welfare/social) liberalism

Accepts a larger government role to correct market failures and expand opportunity, such as through regulation and social programs.

[Wk5] Conservatism core ideas

Values tradition, order, and stability; prefers gradual change; skeptical of rapid social engineering; Edmund Burke is a foundational thinker.

[Wk5] Edmund Burke

Critic of the French Revolution who defended inherited institutions, gradual reform, and the accumulated wisdom of tradition (Burkeanism).

[Wk5] Socialism core ideas

Critiques capitalist inequality; supports collective or public ownership/control of key economic resources and greater economic equality.

[Wk5] Marxism core ideas

Society is shaped by economic structure and class struggle between bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers); capitalism will give way to socialism and then communism.

[Wk5] Historical materialism

Marx's view that economic conditions and the means of production drive historical change and shape politics and ideas.

[Wk5] Bourgeoisie vs. proletariat

Bourgeoisie own the means of production; proletariat sell their labor to survive.

[Wk5] Relationship among Marxism, socialism, and communism

Marxism is a theory of history and class struggle; socialism is the transitional or broader system of collective ownership; communism is the final stateless, classless society (and later, ruling Communist party systems).

[Wk5] Social democracy vs. communism

Social democracy keeps capitalism and democracy while expanding welfare and regulation; communism seeks abolishing private ownership of production.

[Wk5] Apply ideologies: rising unemployment

Liberal: targeted benefits or training; classical liberal or conservative: lower taxes and fewer regulations to spur markets; socialist: public jobs, worker control, or nationalization.

[Wk5] Apply ideologies: healthcare reform

Liberal: expand access via regulation or insurance; conservative: preserve existing arrangements and favor market solutions; socialist: universal public system.

[Wk5] Why do ideologies propose different solutions to the same problem?

They differ on human nature, the proper role of government, and which values (liberty, order, equality) take priority. [Wk5]