Unit 6

A measurement of the percentages of the different types of white blood cells (leukocytes) in a blood sample. It can help identify infections, autoimmune disorders, and other health problems.

Differential count

A blood-cleaning and immune defence centre Immunity

Spleen

Interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels. It contains fluid collected from the spaces between cells and can carry immune cells and other substances.

Lymph

Any substance that triggers an immune response that results in the formation of antibodies. Examples include bacteria, viruses, toxins, and certain proteins.

Antigen

A protein produced by B lymphocytes that binds to a specific antigen. ______ help neutralize antigens and make pathogens easier for other immune cells, such as phagocytes, to destroy

Antibody

White blood cells that ingest and destroy invading microorganisms, damaged cells, and cellular debris. They are an important part of the innate immune system.

Phagocytes

White blood cells that include B cells and T cells. They are responsible for the adaptive immune response, which provides specific immunity against pathogens.

Lymphocytes

Immunity that develops when a person's own immune system responds to an antigen and creates an immune response and immunological memory. It can be acquired naturally through infection or artificially through vaccination.

Active immunity

Immunity acquired by receiving preformed antibodies from another source. It provides immediate protection but generally does not create long-lasting immunological memory.

Passive immunity

The immune response that occurs when the body encounters a particular pathogen or antigen for the first time. It takes time to develop because the immune system must recognize the antigen and activate the appropriate immune cells.

Primary adaptive immune response

The immune response that occurs when the body encounters the same antigen again. It is faster and stronger than the primary response because memory cells were formed during the first exposure.

Secondary adaptive immune response

The process of urination or voiding, in which urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra

Micturition

The movement of water and small dissolved substances from the blood in the glomerulus into the glomerular capsule. Blood pressure drives this process, while blood cells and most large proteins remain in the blood. The kidney filters blood, pushing water and small substances into the nephron.

Think: “Filter it out!”

Glomerular filtration

The movement of useful substances and water from the filtrate inside the nephron back into the blood. Approximately 99% of the filtered water is reabsorbed. The kidney takes useful things back, like water, glucose, and needed salts.

Think: “Wait! I want that back!”

Tubular reabsorption

The movement of substances from the blood into the filtrate inside the nephron. This process helps remove waste products and regulate the composition of the blood. The kidney adds extra wastes and substances into the tubule to help remove them in urine.

Think: “Send more junk into the pee!”

Tubular secretion

The force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels. The term usually refers to systemic arterial blood pressure and is measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg).

Blood pressure

The higher blood pressure reading, representing the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles contract and eject blood into the circulation. A typical reference value is about 120 mm Hg in a healthy adult.

Systolic pressure

The lower blood pressure reading, representing the pressure in the arteries while the ventricles relax between contractions. A typical reference value is about 80 mm Hg in a healthy adult.

Diastolic pressure

The expansion and recoil of the arterial walls caused by blood being ejected from the heart. It can be felt in arteries and is measured in beats per minute to help determine heart rate.

Pulse

The thickness of a fluid and its resistance to flowing. Increased blood viscosity increases resistance to blood flow and tends to increase blood pressure.

Viscosity

The ability of a blood vessel to stretch and expand when blood enters it. Reduced arterial compliance means the arteries are stiffer, which can increase blood pressure.

Compliance

The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It depends on heart rate and stroke volume. Increased cardiac output generally increases blood pressure.

Cardiac output

A condition in which the body does not produce enough antidiuretic hormone (ADH), or the kidneys do not respond properly to it. This causes excessive production of dilute urine and increased thirst.

Diabetes insipidus

The inability to voluntarily control urination, resulting in involuntary leakage of urine. It can occur when the urethral sphincter becomes weakened.

Urinary incontinence

_____ _____ organs are where lymphocytes develop and mature.

Primary lymphoid

_____ ___ organs are where immune cells encounter antigens and adaptive immune responses can occur.

Secondary lymphoid

B cells develop primarily in red____ _____ ___

bone marrow.

T cells mature in the ____.

thymus

Drains excess fluid from the tissues and returns it to the bloodstream. It also transports immune cells and absorbs dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the intestine.

Lymphatic system

Collect excess interstitial fluid from the spaces between cells. Once the fluid enters these vessels, it is called lymph.

Lymphatic capillaries

Filter lymph by removing pathogens, debris, and other unwanted materials. Macrophages destroy many pathogens, and lymph nodes are important sites for adaptive immune responses involving B cells and T cells.

Lymph nodes

Ingest and destroy pathogens, damaged cells, and cellular debris. They help protect the body through the innate immune response.

Antibodies

Produces blood cells through hematopoiesis and is the primary site of B-cell development

Red bone marrow

Filters the blood, removes microbes and other unwanted materials, destroys aging red blood cells, and supports immune responses against pathogens circulating in the blood.

Spleen

Located behind the sternum and in front of the heart. It is where T lymphocytes mature and become capable of participating in immune responses.

Thymus

Filters blood to form urine, removes waste products, maintains fluid balance, and helps regulate blood pressure and blood composition.

Kidney

Transports urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder through waves of smooth muscle contractions called peristalsis. Its angled entry into the bladder helps prevent urine from flowing backward toward the kidneys.

Ureter

Temporarily stores urine. Its elastic walls stretch as urine accumulates, and its detrusor muscle contracts during urination to help expel urine.

Urinary bladder

Carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. The urethral sphincters help control when urine is released.

Urethra

The functional unit of the kidney. It filters blood and modifies the filtrate through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion to produce urine.

Nephron

A ____ _____ measures the percentages of the different types of white blood cells in a blood sample. It provides information about the body's immune response and can help identify possible health problems.

differential count

Higher-than-normal leukocyte levels may indicate an

A. An infection or an autoimmune disorder.

B. Hormonal imbalances or stress

C. It means nothing

A. An infection or an autoimmune disorder.

Lower-than-normal leukocyte levels may be associated with

A. An infection or an autoimmune disorder.

B. Hormonal imbalances or stress

C. It means nothing

B. Hormonal imbalances or stress

The primary adaptive immune response occurs when the body encounters a pathogen for the first time. The immune system needs time to recognize the antigen and activate the appropriate B and T lymphocytes. During this response, ____ cells are produced, and symptoms may develop before the immune response becomes effective.

memory

The ______ adaptive immune response occurs when the body encounters the same antigen again. It is faster and stronger because memory cells recognize the antigen and respond more rapidly. The pathogen may be eliminated before it causes significant tissue damage or noticeable symptoms.

Secondary

Which defence has immunological memory to provide a faster and more effective defense.

Secondary immune response

Develops after a person becomes infected with a pathogen and their immune system responds to it.

Naturally acquired active immunity

Develops after vaccination. A vaccine introduces a weakened or killed pathogen, or components of a pathogen, to stimulate an immune response without usually causing significant disease.

Artificially acquired active immunity

Natural infection versus vaccination. Both can produce memory cells and longer-lasting protection. T/F

True

Occurs when antibodies pass from mother to baby through the placenta or breast milk.

Naturally acquired passive immunity

Occurs when preformed antibodies are administered medically, such as antivenin following a venomous snake bite.

Artificially acquired passive immunity

Water and small dissolved substances move from the blood in the glomerulus into the glomerular capsule due to blood pressure. Blood cells and most large proteins remain in the bloodstream. The kidney filters blood, pushing water and small substances into the nephron.

Think: “Filter it out!”

Glomerular filtration

Useful substances and water move from the filtrate back into the blood. Approximately 99% of the filtered water is reabsorbed, along with most useful solutes.

Tubular reabsorption

Glomerular filtration: Water and small dissolved substances move from the blood in the glomerulus into the glomerular capsule due to blood pressure. Blood cells and most large proteins remain in the bloodstream. The kidney filters blood, pushing water and small substances into the nephron.

Think: “Filter it out!”

- Location: ____ and _____

Glomerulus and glomerular capsule

Substances move from the blood into the filtrate. This helps remove unwanted substances and regulate the chemical composition of the blood. The kidney adds extra wastes and substances into the tubule to help remove them in urine.

Think: “Send more junk into the pee!”

Tubular secretion

Blood to capsule. Filter it out

Bat Cat Fat

A. Filtration

B. Reabsorption

C. Secretion

A. Filtration

filtrate to blood The kidney takes useful things back, like water, glucose, and needed salts.

Think: “Wait! I want that back!”

Front Back Front

A. Filtration

B. Reabsorption

C. Secretion

B. Reabsorption

ADH is released when you are ___

Dehydrated

blood to filtrate.

Be Fucking Serious

A. Filtration

B. Reabsorption

C. Secretion

C. Secretion

As the filtrate travels through the nephron, _____ returns useful water and substances to the blood, while secretion adds certain substances to the filtrate. Once it becomes urine, it leaves the kidney through the ureter, is stored in the bladder, and exits through the urethra during urination. The kidney takes useful things back, like water, glucose, and needed salts.

Think: “Wait! I want that back!”

reabsorption

Micturition is the process of urination. It involves both involuntary reflexes and voluntary control of the ____ ___ ____.

external urethral sphincter

Urine accumulates in the bladder, causing its walls to stretch. At around 150 mL, a person may begin to feel the urge to urinate.

Bladder filling

Receptors in the bladder wall detect stretching and send nerve impulses to the spinal cord.

Stretch receptors activate

The spinal reflex stimulates the detrusor muscle to contract and causes the internal urethral sphincter to relax.

Involuntary reflex begins

The external urethral sphincter, which is made of skeletal muscle, can remain contracted to prevent urine from leaving the bladder. This can override the external urethral sphincter to prevent relaxation

Voluntary control

When a person decides to urinate, the external urethral sphincter relaxes, allowing urine to pass through the urethra and out of the body.

Urination occurs

_____ pressure is the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles contract and eject blood into the circulation. It is the higher number in a blood pressure reading.

Systolic

_____ pressure is the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles relax between contractions. It is the lower number.

Diastolic

For example, in a blood pressure reading of 120/80 mm Hg:

120 mm Hg is the _____ pressure.

systolic

For example, in a blood pressure reading of 120/80 mm Hg:.

80 mm Hg is the ____ pressure.

diastolic

Is a pulse can only be detected in

Veins or arteries

Arteries

_____ is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. When blood pressure decreases, the kidneys release renin, which starts a sequence of reactions that produces angiotensin II. Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release.

Aldosterone

Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. When blood pressure decreases, the kidneys release ____, which starts a sequence of reactions that produces angiotensin II. Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release.

renin

Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. When blood pressure decreases, the kidneys release renin, which starts a sequence of reactions that produces _______. ______ stimulates aldosterone release.

angiotensin II

____ acts on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron. It increases the reabsorption of sodium ions (Na⁺) from the filtrate into the blood and increases the secretion of potassium ions (K⁺) into the filtrate.

Aldosterone

____ _____ helps regulate water balance in the body. When a person becomes dehydrated, blood osmolarity increases. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect this change and stimulate the release of ADH.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

ADH acts on the collecting ducts of the ____, causing more water channels called aquaporins to be inserted into their cells. This allows more water to move from the filtrate back into the bloodstream through osmosis.

nephron

Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Consequently, urine generally contains less sodium and more potassium. Water retention also tends to increase as sodium is reabsorbed.

Aldosterone

Primarily regulates water reabsorption by increasing the number of aquaporins in the collecting ducts. More _____ produces a smaller volume of concentrated urine, while less ______ produces a larger volume of dilute urine. Abbreviation

ADH

The main difference is that _____ primarily regulates sodium and potassium balance, whereas ____ primarily regulates water balance.

aldosterone and ADH

ADH allows the body to adjust how much _____ is reabsorbed, helping control blood osmolarity and urine concentration.

water

Aldosterone allows the body to adjust ____ reabsorption and ____ secretion. Water follows reabsorbed sodium, helping maintain blood volume and blood pressure.

sodium and potassium

Both hormones help conserve body fluid and support blood pressure, but they work differently: aldosterone primarily controls sodium recovery, while ADH primarily controls ___ recovery.

water

Both hormones help conserve body fluid and support blood pressure, but they work differently: aldosterone primarily controls ____ recovery, while ADH primarily controls water recovery.

sodium

 ______ is the term used to describe interstitial fluid once it has entered the lymphatic system.

Lymph

 Lymph flows from the lymphatic _____, through lymphatic _____, and then re-enters the circulatory system via the lymphatic ____ located at the junction of the jugular and subclavian veins in the neck

Lymph flow. C V D

Capillaries, vessels, and ducts

Where are the lymphatic ducts localized? Let’s just sleep

jugular and subclavian veins in the neck

The ___ ____ ____is responsible for most hematopoietic functions. Making this a primary lymphoid organs (P)

red bone marrow

- The _ cell undergoes nearly all of its development in the red bone marrow.

B

The ____ gland is an organ found in the space behind the sternum and anterior to the heart. It is the maturation site of T lymphocytes, a type of immune cell necessary for proper functioning of the immune system. TT

This is a primary organ (PaRT)

thymus

The ____ has extensive vascularization and high numbers of macrophages that remove microbes and other materials from the blood, including dying red blood cells. Spleen, stores, filters, and defends. Sally Stares at Fat Ducks

Making this a secondary lymphoid organs (SeLLS)

spleen

______ within this organ internalize and kill many of the pathogens that pass through, thereby removing them from the body. _____ within this organ internalize and kill many of the pathogens that pass through, thereby removing them from the body.

Macrophages

What are the 2 different cells in leukocytes? LPL

Phagocytes and lymphocytes

This group of cells is responsible for ingesting invading microbes, damaged cells and cellular debris, and plays a major role in the body’s innate immune system. Eats invader

Phagocytes

This group of cells includes your B and T cells and is responsible for the body’s adaptive immune response, which generates immunity. Let’s talk back

Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes have __ & __ cells

Let’s back talk

B and T

Which organ is responsible for urine formation in the body.

Kidneys

 The bladder is a very elastic organ comprised of irregular crisscrossing bands of smooth muscle collectively called the ___ muscle.

detrusor

Is this the male or female urethra. Its short length, about 4 cm, is less of a barrier to fecal bacteria than the longer other urethra and the best explanation for the greater incidence of urinary tract infections.

Female Urethra

Is this the male or female urethra

The urethra passes through the prostate gland immediately inferior to the bladder before passing below the pubic symphysis. The urethra passes through the deep muscles of the perineum

Male Urethra