Sociological Research Methods: Foundations, Sampling, and Measurement

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering sociological research methods, philosophy of science (ontology and epistemology), causal criteria, sampling strategies, levels of measurement, and composite measures.

Research Methods

The procedures used to answer a research question, dealing with how data is collected, what design is used, and how data is analyzed.

Ontology

The area of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality, existence, and the nature of being.

Ontological Assumptions

Assumptions made in research regarding the fundamental nature of reality and the nature of what is being studied and its place in the world, categorized into two core positions: realist or nominalist.

Epistemology

The area of philosophy concerned with the creation of knowledge, how we know what we know, and the most valid ways to reach knowledge and truth.

Realist Position

The ontological perspective asserting that reality exists independently of humans and their interpretations of it, meaning objective knowledge is possible and reached through reason, logic, and evidence.

Nominalist Position

The ontological perspective asserting that the experience of the real world always occurs through a lens or scheme of interpretations and inner subjectivity, making objective knowledge impossible (radical relativism).

Paradigm

A whole system of thinking that shares basic assumptions, important questions or puzzles, research techniques, and examples of valid social science.

Positivist/Post-positivist Paradigm

A social science paradigm grounded in a realist ontology and philosophical empiricism that focuses on quantitative methods and searches for causes and effects.

Interpretive/Constructivism Paradigm

A social science paradigm grounded in a nominalist ontology where reality is created and accomplished, focusing on qualitative methods to search for meanings and interpretations.

Critical/Transformative Paradigm

A paradigm based on critical realist ontology (viewing reality as composed of the empirical, the real, and the actual) that utilizes both nomothetic and idiographic approaches, assumes a dialectical change process, and seeks to transform marginalized groups.

Nomothetic Approach

A research approach aimed at discovering large-scale patterns, general types or categories, and what is in common across phenomena to generalize findings.

Idiographic Approach

A research approach aimed at discovering what is contingent, unique, and specific about a particular phenomenon.

(Negative) Dialectic

A change process emphasized in critical social science in which social relationships contain irresolvable contradictions that, over time, trigger a dramatic upset and a total restructuring of the relationship.

Pragmatism

A philosophical approach based on the premise that an idea or ideology is true if it works well in its practical consequences, working backwards from consequences to establish truth.

Deductive Research

A research approach moving from abstract theory to concrete data to test hypotheses (theory testing); usually quantitative, where the conclusion must be true if the evidence is true.

Inductive Research

A research approach moving from concrete data to abstract theory (theory building); usually qualitative, where conclusions remain uncertain because they extend beyond the observed evidence.

Basic Research

Also known as academic research; research designed to advance fundamental knowledge about how the world works and build or test theoretical explanations by focusing on the 'why' question for the scientific community.

Applied Research

Research designed to offer practical solutions to concrete social problems or address the immediate, specific needs of clinicians, practitioners, or subjects.

Evaluation Research

A type of applied research that attempts to gauge or determine how well a program or policy is working and reaching its goals or objectives.

Action Research / Participatory Action Research

A type of applied research whose primary goal is to facilitate social change or bring about a value-oriented political-social goal through the democratization of knowledge creation.

Social Impact Assessment

A type of applied research that documents the likely consequences for various areas of social life if a major new change is introduced into a community.

Association

A criterion of causality stating that two variables are systematically related or correlated with one another.

Direction of Influence / Time Order

A criterion of causality requiring that changes in the independent variable ($X$) occur before changes in the dependent variable ($Y$).

Nonspuriousness

A criterion of causality requiring that the observed relationship between two variables is genuine and not caused by an extraneous, intervening third variable.

Explanatory Mechanism

A criterion of causality referring to an intervening mechanism, linchpin, or theoretical concept that accounts for how and why changes occur across variables.

Theoretical Inferences

Conclusions drawn about the underlying 'why' by observing sample data to test theoretical claims, regardless of causality.

Statistical Inferences

Conclusions drawn about a larger population based on empirical findings from sample data.

Conceptualization

The process of reviewing existing literature, evaluating definitions, stating and isolating key concepts, and developing clear theoretical definitions that clarify relationships between variables.

Operationalization

The process following conceptualization that specifies how abstract concepts are converted into concrete, measurable variables using empirical indicators.

Cross-Sectional Survey Design

A research design in which data is collected at a single point in time, preventing researchers from establishing the time order required for causality.

Longitudinal Survey Design

A research design in which data is gathered repeatedly across multiple points in time, allowing potential observation of time order while still risking uncontrolled third variables.

Target Population

The entire, large group containing all possible cases that a given research question covers.

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

A probability sampling design where a sampling frame of all cases is established and cases are selected using a purely random, independent process where every case has a known probability of selection.

Cluster Sampling

A multi-stage probability sampling design where a frame is created for large cluster units, a random sample of clusters is drawn, and then cases are randomly sampled from within those selected clusters.

Stratified Sampling

A probability sampling design where a sampling frame is established for distinct categories (strata) of cases, random samples are drawn within each stratum, and these samples are combined.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where cases are selected purely based on ease of access (e.g., using undergraduate students), offering low cost but high risk of bias.

Quota Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique using haphazard methods to obtain a preset number of cases within predetermined categories to mirror population diversity, though selection chances remain unequal.

Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sampling method where researchers intentionally seek out and select all possible cases that satisfy specific predetermined criteria.

Snowball Sampling

A non-probability sampling method where initial participants refer additional cases, who in turn refer further cases in a sequential chain.

Nominal Level of Measurement

A categorical measurement level where attributes have no mathematical rank or order (e.g., religious denominations such as Jewish, Catholic, Lutheran, Baptist).

Ordinal Level of Measurement

A measurement level where categories possess a clear rank or hierarchical order, but the distance between ranks is not quantified (e.g., schooling levels: high school, some college, bachelor's, master's).

Interval Level of Measurement

A quantitative measurement level characterized by equal distances between numerical values, but lacking an absolute or true zero point (e.g., IQ score).

Ratio Level of Measurement

A quantitative measurement level characterized by equal distances between numerical values and the presence of a true zero point (e.g., age measured in years).

Composite Measure

An instrument combining multiple indicators to measure a general dimension, attitude, or orientation that cannot be captured adequately by a single item; includes indices, scales, and typologies.

Index

A composite measure that accumulates and rank-orders specific nominal-level observations (often scored $0=\text{no}$ and $1=\text{yes}$) into an ordinal summary score or mean.

Scale

A composite measure designed to capture the intensity, degree, or emotion of a dimension through patterned responses across items with a logical or empirical structure (commonly using Likert-type items).