3.1.1. MEMORY

memory

mental processes of encoding, storing and retrieving information

sensory memory

brief storage of information from each of the senses in an unprocessed form lasting around half a second or recoding into short

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

unlimited storage system in the brain which has the capacity to hold information from a few mins to a lifetime

3 key types of Long Term Memories

episodic, semantic, procedural

semantic memory

facts, meaning of everything you know

episodic memory

personal events(episodes) you've experienced in your life

procedural memory

non-conscious memories aka 'muscle memory' which is remembering how to perform skills + actions e.g. driving a car and riding a bike.

difference between declarative and non-declarative memories

declarative --> requires conscious recall (episodic, semantic)

non-declarative --> does not require conscious recall(procedural)

Encoding

process of changing/translating sensory information into a form that can be held in your brain (input)

Storage

retaining encoded information in your brain for over a period of time

Retrieval

process of locating stored information and bringing it back into conscious use

describe the role of rehearsal in the MSM(2 marks)

-repeating information held in the STM

-helps maintain info in STM/transfers it to LTM

Describe what is meant by capacity and duration

-capacity: amount of information a memory store can hold
-duration: how long information remains in a store

recognition (retrieval)

identifying correct information when it is presented - e.g. seeing someone and identifying who they are

cued recall (retrieval)

'trigger' of information that enables us to access a memory without fully presenting the answer

free recall (retrieval)

information is retrieved from your brain without any cues

'forgetting'

inability to retrieve info that's been stored in our memory

4 explanations for forgetting

encoding failure, interference, decay, retrieval failure

encoding failure

failure of processing information into memory

decay theory

-memory traces(physical traces left in brain by memories) fade over time without rehearsal

-can gradually weaken if info is not revisited or rehearsed

-memory may disappear entirely

storage failure

information was encoded but faded before it was needed

Murdock's aim

to see if memory of words is affected by number of words a person had to remember and to see if position of a word in a list affects its recall

Murdock's method

-4000 most common English words were selected

-103 students on a psychology course participated in groups over several sessions

-they listened to 20 words lists; each one varied from 10-40 words

-they then had to recall the words they had just heard

Murdock’s results

-likelihood of recall was linked to the position of the word in the list
-higher recall for the 1st words on the list; primacy effect
-higher recall for the last words on the list; recency effect

Outline what Murdock's study found regarding the recency effect (2 marks

-higher recall for words at the end of the list
-words were still held in STM

Describe the procedure of Murdock's study

-103 participants used
-they listened to word lists varying in length of 10-40 words
-each word presented at rate of one word per second
-participants had to instantly recall as many words possible

Define the term 'serial position effect'

-tendency for person to recall the first and last items in a list the best and the middle items worst

Explain two features of reconstructive memory(4 marks)

-we do not store it as a passive recording verbatim; memory is an active process and is instead shaped by our schemas(mental frameworks)
-during recall we distort details through omissions, alterations or confabulation to make the memory fit our expectations

reconstructive memory

-theory that memory is an active process
-rebuild memory using stored fragments combined with prior knowledge + expectations(schemas)

schemas

-mental frameworks that we build up from past experiences
-helps us to organise and interpret new information
-when we witness an event, schemas can fill in missing gaps

Effort after meaning

process of focusing on the overall meaning of unfamiliar information and interpreting it so it makes sense according to your own existing schemas

Explain a strength of reconstructive memory

-explains inaccuracies in eyewitness testimony
-each witness's memory of the same event has been reconstructed differently from fragments of information and schemas to fill in the missing gaps within events

Explain a limitation of reconstructive memory

-argues that our memories are always an active process + are prone to inaccuracies
-certain memories that are personal or distinctive can be remembered with accurate detail
-participants often recalled the phrase 'something black came out of his mouth' due to how distinctive it was

Bartlett’s aim

to investigate how memory is reconstructed when people are asked to recall something repeatedly over a period of time

Why did Bartlett use a story from a different culture?

his aim was to see how cultural expectations affect memory

Bartlett’s method

-showed participants native American folktale then asked them to reproduce it 15 mins later

-used serial reproductions technique; story was repeatedly reproduced, retold then recalled as it was passed down between participants

-participants were UK university students; story’s culture was different to theirs

Bartlett’s results

-participants interpreted story within their own schemas(social + cultural expectations)

-story was shortened by omissions; ‘boats’ used instead of ‘canoe’,