IB Psych Cog Approach

What is the cognitive approach?

It studies mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking and decision-making. It often views humans as information processors and investigates how cognition influences behaviour. Example: expectations can affect how a person interprets an ambiguous situation.

What is cognitive processing?

The mental operations involved in receiving, encoding, storing, retrieving and using information. Memory, schema processing and decision-making are examples.

What is the multi-store model of memory?

Atkinson and Shiffrin's model proposes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Information may pass between stores through attention and rehearsal. The model distinguishes stores by duration, capacity and function.

What is sensory memory?

A brief store that retains incoming sensory information for a very short period. Attention determines which information receives further processing.

What is short-term memory in the multi-store model?

A limited-capacity store that temporarily holds attended information. Without rehearsal, information may be lost; rehearsal can support transfer into long-term memory in the model.

What is long-term memory?

A relatively enduring memory store with a potentially very large capacity. Information can be retained over extended periods, although retrieval is not always accurate.

What is the working memory model?

Baddeley's model describes working memory as an active system with a central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and later-added episodic buffer. It explains temporary processing of verbal and visual-spatial information.

What does the central executive do?

It directs attention and coordinates working-memory processes. It has limited capacity and helps allocate resources to tasks.

What is the phonological loop?

The working-memory component that temporarily maintains verbal and speech-based information. It is commonly described as including a phonological store and articulatory rehearsal process.

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

The working-memory component that temporarily maintains and manipulates visual and spatial information, such as mentally rotating an object.

What is the episodic buffer?

A component added to the working memory model to integrate information from different sources into a temporary, multidimensional representation linked with long-term memory.

What is a cognitive schema?

A mental framework that organizes knowledge, beliefs and expectations. Schemas help interpret new information efficiently but can also influence perception and memory.

What is top-down processing?

Processing guided by prior knowledge, expectations or schemas. It helps interpret ambiguous information but can cause people to perceive what they expect rather than what is present.

What is bottom-up processing?

Processing that begins with incoming sensory information and builds toward interpretation. It emphasizes stimulus features rather than relying primarily on prior expectations.

What is reconstructive memory?

The idea that remembering involves reconstructing an event rather than replaying an exact recording. Schemas, later information and expectations can alter what is recalled.

What is the misinformation effect?

A distortion of memory caused by misleading information introduced after an event. It demonstrates that post-event wording or information can influence later reports.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek, interpret or remember information in ways that support existing beliefs, while discounting contradictory evidence.

What is intuitive thinking?

Fast, relatively automatic thinking that requires limited conscious effort. It can be efficient but is more vulnerable to cognitive biases and heuristics.

What is rational or controlled thinking?

Slower, intentional thinking that involves deliberate analysis and effort. It can help assess alternatives and reduce some biases, but it is not guaranteed to produce correct decisions.

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut used to make judgments quickly. Heuristics can be useful under time pressure but can also produce systematic errors.

What is framing?

The way information is presented can influence decisions even when the underlying options are equivalent. For example, a treatment described in terms of survival may be judged differently from one described in terms of mortality.

What did Peterson and Peterson (1959) investigate?

Aim: investigate short-term memory duration when rehearsal is prevented. Method: laboratory experiment using consonant trigrams and a distracting counting task. Recall declined as the delay increased. This supports rapid loss from short-term memory without rehearsal, although interference may also explain forgetting. Exact sample and statistics: [verify].

How does Peterson and Peterson (1959) support the multi-store model?

Recall declined when rehearsal was prevented, supporting the idea that short-term memory is limited and temporary. However, counting introduces interference, so the results do not establish that decay alone caused forgetting.

What did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) investigate?

Aim: investigate the serial-position effect in free recall. Participants recalled word lists; an interfering task before recall reduced the recency effect. This supports a distinction between short-term and long-term memory contributions. Exact sample and statistics: [verify].

How does Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) support the multi-store model?

The recency effect was reduced by a distractor task, consistent with recently presented items relying on a temporary store. The primacy effect was more persistent, consistent with rehearsal and long-term storage. This supports, but does not conclusively prove, separate stores.

What did Bransford and Johnson (1972) investigate?

Aim: examine how context affects comprehension and memory. Participants heard a passage that was difficult to understand without a relevant context; providing context before the passage improved comprehension and recall. This supports schema theory. Exact sample and statistics: [verify].

How does Bransford and Johnson (1972) support schema theory?

Providing a relevant context before an ambiguous passage improved understanding and recall. This suggests prior knowledge helps organize incoming information, making it easier to encode and retrieve.

What did Kahneman and Tversky (1974) investigate?

They examined heuristics and biases in judgment under uncertainty. Their research showed that people often use shortcuts such as representativeness and availability, which can produce systematic errors. The article synthesized several experiments; do not treat it as one experiment with a single sample.

How does Kahneman and Tversky (1974) explain decision-making errors?

People use heuristics to make judgments quickly. These shortcuts reduce effort but may cause predictable biases when judgments rely on similarity or ease of recall rather than relevant statistical information.

What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) investigate?

Aim: investigate whether wording of questions influences memory for a car accident. In the first experiment, 45 students watched accident films and estimated speeds after different verbs were used. Stronger verbs produced higher estimates. In a second experiment, the word “smashed” increased reports of broken glass. Exact group statistics: [verify].

How does Loftus and Palmer (1974) support reconstructive memory?

Changing the verb in a post-event question altered participants' speed estimates. This suggests memory reports can be influenced by later language, although response bias is an alternative to a genuine change in stored memory.

What is a limitation of Loftus and Palmer (1974)?

The filmed accidents and speed estimates may lack real-world emotional involvement. Participants may have changed their answers because of the wording without their actual memories changing. Therefore, the study supports post-event influence but does not settle the precise mechanism.

Describe one model of memory. (PEEL)

Point: the multi-store model proposes distinct memory stores. Evidence: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) found that a distractor reduced the recency effect. Explain: this is consistent with a temporary short-term store. Link: the results support the model, but alternative explanations and other memory models must also be considered.

Explain how schemas influence memory. (PEEL)

Point: schemas organize information using prior knowledge. Evidence: Bransford and Johnson (1972) found that relevant context improved understanding and recall of an ambiguous passage. Explain: context helps people organize new information. Link: schemas support efficient processing but may also distort memory.

Discuss the reliability of cognitive processes. (SEEL)

Statement: cognitive processes are useful but not perfectly reliable. Evidence: Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that question wording influenced eyewitness estimates. Explain: recall can be reconstructed using post-event information. Evaluation: laboratory realism and response bias are limitations. Link: memory reports should be assessed critically rather than assumed to be exact records.

Evaluate one model of memory. (PEEL)

Point: the multi-store model provides a clear framework for memory. Evidence: Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that recall declined when rehearsal was prevented. Explain: this supports a temporary short-term store. Evaluation: interference may explain forgetting, and the model simplifies memory. Link: it is useful but does not capture every aspect of memory.

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What is the working memory model's main claim?

Working memory is an active, limited-capacity system with separate components that temporarily maintain and manipulate different types of information. It explains tasks such as simultaneously reading and mentally calculating.

What is the central executive?

The component that directs attention and coordinates the other working-memory components. Its precise mechanisms and capacity are difficult to specify, which limits the model's explanatory precision.

What does the phonological loop do?

It temporarily maintains speech-based and other auditory-verbal information through a phonological store and articulatory rehearsal process. Example: silently repeating a phone number.

What does the visuospatial sketchpad do?

It temporarily maintains and manipulates visual and spatial information, such as mentally rotating a shape or remembering a route.

What is the episodic buffer?

A limited-capacity component proposed to integrate information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and long-term memory into coherent episodes.

How does the working memory model differ from the multi-store model?

The multi-store model proposes separate sensory, short-term and long-term stores. The working memory model explains short-term processing through interacting components, accounting for differences between verbal and visuospatial tasks.

How can dual-task performance support the working memory model?

If two tasks using different components can be performed together more easily than two tasks using the same component, this supports the idea of partly separate processing resources. Performance may still decline when attention is divided.

What did Baddeley and Hitch (1974) investigate?

They investigated whether short-term memory operates as a single unit or as a system of components. Participants performed reasoning tasks while retaining information. Concurrent tasks interfered with performance but did not make reasoning impossible, supporting a more complex working-memory system. Exact sample and procedure details: [verify].

What is a strength of Baddeley and Hitch's working-memory research?

Dual-task experiments provide evidence that verbal retention and reasoning can occur together, challenging the idea of a single, unitary short-term store. However, task interference does not uniquely prove the model's exact components.

What did Robbins et al. (1996) investigate?

They used dual-task performance to examine working-memory components, including verbal and visuospatial processing. The study is listed in the supplied key-studies document; exact sample, task details and numerical findings should be checked against the original report before memorising them.

What did Klingberg et al. (2005) investigate?

They investigated working-memory training and its effects on cognitive performance in children with attention difficulties. The research is relevant to whether training can improve working memory, but exact sample characteristics and outcome statistics should be verified from the original study.

What is reconstructive memory?

The idea that remembering is not a literal replay: people reconstruct events using stored information, expectations, schemas and information encountered after the event. This can produce systematic errors.

What is the misinformation effect?

When information encountered after an event alters a person's later memory or report of that event. Leading questions can influence eyewitness accounts.

What is source-monitoring error?

An error in identifying where a memory or piece of information came from—for example, remembering a detail but confusing whether it was witnessed, imagined or suggested by another person.

What is confabulation?

The production of inaccurate or fabricated memories without necessarily intending to deceive. It can occur when gaps in memory are filled by plausible information.

What did Loftus and Pickrell (1995) investigate?

They investigated whether people could develop a memory of being lost in a shopping mall during childhood after receiving suggestive information from a relative. Some participants reported details of the suggested event, supporting the possibility of false autobiographical memories.

What is a methodological limitation of Loftus and Pickrell (1995)?

The study used a small sample and relied on relatives' reports and participants' recollections. Its artificial suggestion procedure may not represent how spontaneous autobiographical memories form in everyday life. Exact sample details and percentages: [verify].

What did Shaw and Porter (2015) investigate?

They examined whether repeated interviews and suggestion could lead participants to report false memories of committing a criminal act during adolescence. The study reported that some participants developed detailed false-event narratives; exact rates and procedural details should be verified before use.

Why must false-memory findings be interpreted cautiously?

A participant reporting an event does not automatically establish a fully formed, vivid false memory. Demand characteristics, source confusion and the operational definition of “memory” affect interpretation. Researchers must distinguish recollection from compliance or belief.

What is a flashbulb memory?

A vivid, confident memory of the circumstances in which someone learned about a surprising or emotionally significant event. Vividness and confidence do not guarantee accuracy over time.

How can stress affect memory?

Stress can influence attention, encoding and retrieval. Effects depend on intensity, timing and the type of information: stress may strengthen memory for some emotionally relevant details while impairing other information or later retrieval.

What role can cortisol play in memory?

Cortisol is a stress-related hormone that can influence memory systems. Its effects depend on timing, dose and interaction with arousal; it is inaccurate to claim that cortisol always improves or always damages memory.

What did Buchanan and Lovallo investigate?

Their research examined whether stress-level cortisol affected memory for emotional and neutral material. The reported pattern was enhanced memory for emotionally arousing material following cortisol administration. The supplied study list gives 2000; the commonly cited journal article is dated 2001, so verify the year and exact protocol before using it.

What is a limitation of research on cortisol and memory?

Laboratory hormone administration can help establish causal effects under controlled conditions, but the dose and timing may not resemble natural stress. Findings may also depend on the material tested and individual differences.

What is state-dependent memory?

Memory retrieval may be influenced by whether a person's internal state during retrieval resembles the state present during encoding. Evidence is not sufficient to conclude that matching states always improves recall.

How can the amygdala influence memory?

The amygdala contributes to processing emotional significance and can modulate memory encoding and consolidation through interactions with other brain systems. It does not store all emotional memories by itself.

What is one positive effect of digital technology on cognition?

Some computer-based training may improve performance on trained working-memory tasks, and potentially related tasks. The extent of transfer to general intelligence or everyday functioning is contested and should not be assumed.

What is one negative effect of digital technology on cognition?

External search tools and digital devices can change how people encode, retain and retrieve information. Multitasking and interruptions may reduce attention to a task; effects depend on the activity and research design.

What did Sparrow, Liu and Wegner (2011) investigate?

They studied the “Google effect”: whether expecting information to remain accessible on a computer affects memory for the information versus where it can be found. Participants showed better memory for locations of information that they expected to be available later.

How can Sparrow et al. (2011) be evaluated?

The controlled experiments support a possible relationship between expectations of digital access and memory strategy. However, laboratory tasks may not represent everyday technology use, and remembering where information is stored may be adaptive rather than evidence of general memory decline.

What did Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) investigate?

They compared note-taking by laptop and longhand. Their studies reported that laptop note-takers tended to transcribe more verbatim, while longhand note-takers often processed and paraphrased content more; longhand groups performed better on some conceptual questions.

What is a limitation of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014)?

Laptop use was not identical to all modern digital note-taking, and later research has questioned how robust the findings are. Results may depend on task, instructions, typing habits and whether participants review their notes.

How can a true experiment help study technology and cognition?

Researchers can manipulate a technology-related condition, such as device use or note-taking method, while controlling other variables and measuring memory or attention. Random allocation can support causal inference, although artificial tasks may reduce ecological validity.

What ethical issues arise in false-memory research?

Researchers must consider informed consent, the use of deception or misleading suggestions, possible distress, confidentiality and debriefing. Debriefing should clarify the manipulation and reduce the risk that participants retain a false belief.

Describe one study of the working memory model.

PEEL: Point—working memory has partly separate processing components. Evidence—use Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and its dual-task design. Explain—different task demands can interfere differently. Link—this supports a multi-component account, though it does not prove every component.

Explain how post-event information can affect memory.

PEEL: Point—memory is reconstructive. Evidence—Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that wording of questions influenced speed estimates after a filmed accident. Explain—leading wording can shape reconstruction or reporting. Link—eyewitness evidence can be vulnerable to suggestion.

Discuss the reliability of memory.

PEEL: Point—memory can be useful but is not a perfect recording. Evidence—compare Loftus and Palmer (1974) with research on emotionally significant memories. Explain—suggestion, schemas and emotion can alter confidence or recall. Link—consider ecological validity and whether laboratory findings generalise to real events.

Evaluate the influence of technology on cognition.

PEEL: Point—technology can change cognitive strategies, with mixed effects. Evidence—Sparrow et al. (2011) examined memory for information versus its location; Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) compared note-taking methods. Explain—technology may shift how information is encoded. Link—evaluate laboratory realism and the limits of generalising across devices and tasks.

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What is appraisal in cognitive psychology?

Appraisal is the interpretation of a situation in relation to its meaning, significance and potential consequences. Different appraisals of the same event can produce different emotional responses and influence subsequent thinking and behaviour.

How can appraisal influence emotion and memory?

Appraisal affects how threatening or significant an event seems. This can influence emotional arousal, attention and encoding. However, the relationship is not one-directional: emotional state can also influence how a situation is interpreted.

What is the theory of reasoned action?

A model proposing that behavioural intentions are influenced by attitudes toward a behaviour and subjective norms—perceived social pressure. Intentions can help predict behaviour, although actual control and situational constraints may prevent intentions from becoming actions.

How does the theory of planned behaviour extend the theory of reasoned action?

It adds perceived behavioural control: how capable a person believes they are of performing a behaviour. Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control contribute to behavioural intentions; control may also affect behaviour directly.

What is the adaptive decision-maker framework?

It proposes that people select decision strategies according to the demands of the situation, including complexity, time pressure and available cognitive resources. People do not always use one fixed strategy for every decision.

What is loss aversion?

The tendency for losses to have a stronger psychological impact than equivalent gains. For example, losing $20 may feel worse than gaining $20 feels good. It is associated with prospect theory.

How can framing affect decisions?

Framing presents equivalent information in different ways, such as emphasizing survival rates versus mortality rates. The wording can influence preferences even when the underlying outcomes are mathematically equivalent.

What did Kahneman and Tversky (1974) contribute to cognitive psychology?

They explained how people use heuristics—mental shortcuts—to make judgements under uncertainty. Heuristics can be efficient but can also produce systematic biases. Their paper synthesised evidence from multiple experiments rather than reporting one single study.

What did Bechara et al. (2000) investigate?

Their work examined decision-making in people with ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage, using the Iowa Gambling Task and related evidence. The findings linked this brain region with decisions involving uncertain rewards and punishments. Check the exact sample and protocol for the specific paper before memorising them.

How does the Iowa Gambling Task illustrate emotion and decision-making?

Participants choose cards from decks with different reward and punishment patterns. Successful performance requires learning which choices are advantageous over time. Research has examined whether emotional signals help guide decisions before people can fully explain the rules.

What is a limitation of dual-process explanations?

The distinction between intuitive and controlled thinking is useful, but real decisions can involve both. The processes may interact rather than operate as two entirely separate systems, and researchers may disagree about how to classify a particular task.

What did Cain et al. (2016) investigate?

They examined media multitasking among adolescents and its relationship with cognitive performance. More frequent media multitasking was associated with poorer performance on some measures, including working-memory capacity, and with differences in academic outcomes. The association does not by itself establish causation.

What is a limitation of Cain et al. (2016)?

Associational findings cannot establish that media multitasking caused poorer performance. Pre-existing attention differences, study habits or other variables could influence both media use and cognition. The findings should not be generalised to every adolescent or every form of technology.

What did Lillard and Peterson (2011) investigate?

Sixty 4-year-olds were randomly assigned to watch a fast-paced cartoon, an educational cartoon or draw for 9 minutes. Children who watched the fast-paced cartoon performed worse on executive-function tasks immediately afterward than the other groups.

What is a limitation of Lillard and Peterson (2011)?

The experiment supports a short-term effect under controlled conditions, but it cannot establish long-term cognitive harm. The sample consisted of 60 four-year-olds, and a brief laboratory session may not represent children's typical media use.

What did Christakis et al. (2004) investigate?

They examined the association between early television exposure and later attention problems in children. Their longitudinal research found an association, but observational data cannot establish that television exposure itself caused later attention difficulties.

How does Christakis et al. (2004) differ from Lillard and Peterson (2011)?

Christakis et al. examined an association between early television exposure and later attention problems; Lillard and Peterson randomly assigned children to brief viewing or drawing conditions and measured immediate executive function. The experimental design offers stronger evidence for a short-term causal effect.

What did Kuhn and Holling (2014) investigate?

They compared computer-based number-sense training with working-memory training to examine effects on elementary-school mathematics skills. The study is relevant to whether cognitive training transfers to academic performance; consult the original article for sample details and exact findings.

What is transfer of training?

Transfer occurs when improvement from training in one task benefits performance on another task. Near transfer involves similar tasks; far transfer involves more distant abilities. Claims that brain training improves general intelligence require particularly strong evidence.

Why should the effects of technology on cognition not be treated as uniformly positive or negative?

Effects depend on the technology, task, user and outcome measured. Digital tools can support access to information and targeted training, but interruptions or certain media experiences may affect attention and memory. Evidence for one activity does not automatically generalise to all technology.

How can random allocation strengthen a technology study?

Random allocation helps distribute participant differences across experimental conditions. When combined with controlled manipulation and consistent measurement, it strengthens causal inference. It does not automatically remove demand characteristics, measurement problems or limitations in generalisability.