GOB Chemistry: Functional Groups, Carbohydrates, and Lipids for Nursing

Comprehensive practice vocabulary flashcards covering organic functional groups, carboxylic acids, esters, thiols, ethers, amines, amides, carbohydrates, lipids, and their clinical nursing connections.

"R" Group

A symbol used in organic chemical structures and formulas that represents any attached carbon chain.

Carboxylic Acid (Functional Group)

A functional group with the general formula $\text{R-COOH}$, consisting of a carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) with a hydroxyl group ($-\text{OH}$) on the same carbon, whose systematic name ending is "-oic acid".

Ester (Functional Group)

A functional group with the general formula $\text{R-COO-R'}$, consisting of a carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) bonded to an oxygen that connects to another carbon chain, whose systematic name ending is "-yl …-oate".

Thiol (Functional Group)

A sulfur-containing functional group with the general formula $\text{R-SH}$, consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, whose systematic name ending is "-thiol".

Ether (Functional Group)

A functional group with the general formula $\text{R-O-R'}$, consisting of an oxygen atom bonded between two carbon groups with no adjacent carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$).

Amine (Functional Group)

A nitrogen-containing functional group derived from ammonia ($\text{R-NH}_2$, $\text{R}_2\text{NH}$, or $\text{R}_3\text{N}$), where nitrogen is bonded to carbons and hydrogens without an adjacent carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$).

Amide (Functional Group)

A functional group with the general formula $\text{R-CONH}_2$, consisting of a carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) bonded directly to a nitrogen atom on the same carbon, whose systematic name ending is "-amide".

Ester vs. Ether Distinction

An ester contains an extra carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) adjacent to the oxygen bridge ($-\text{COO-}$), whereas an ether is simply an oxygen atom bonded between two carbons without a carbonyl group.

Amine vs. Amide Distinction

An amide has a carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) doubled up directly next to the nitrogen atom, whereas an amine lacks a carbonyl group.

Acid vs. Ester Relationship

An ester is formed when the hydrogen of a carboxylic acid's hydroxyl group ($-\text{OH}$) is replaced with a carbon group.

Carboxyl Group

The structural grouping $-\text{COOH}$, consisting of a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group ($-\text{OH}$).

IUPAC Naming Rule for Carboxylic Acids

Drop the "-e" from the parent alkane name and add "-oic acid", designating the carboxyl carbon always as carbon 1.

Methanoic Acid

The IUPAC name for the one-carbon carboxylic acid ($\text{HCOOH}$), commonly known as formic acid and found in ant stings.

Formic Acid

The common name for methanoic acid ($\text{HCOOH}$), the compound found in ant stings.

Ethanoic Acid

The IUPAC name for the two-carbon carboxylic acid ($\text{CH}_3\text{COOH}$), commonly known as acetic acid and found in vinegar.

Acetic Acid

The common name for ethanoic acid ($\text{CH}_3\text{COOH}$), the sour organic acid found in vinegar.

Propanoic Acid (Propionic Acid)

The three-carbon carboxylic acid ($\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{COOH}$), commonly used as a preservative in bread and cheese.

Butanoic Acid (Butyric Acid)

The four-carbon carboxylic acid ($\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{CH}_2\text{COOH}$), notorious for the smell of rancid butter.

Carboxylic Acid Dimers

Hydrogen-bonded molecular pairs formed between two carboxylic acid molecules, which give carboxylic acids very high boiling points.

Carboxylic Acid Water Solubility Limit

Carboxylic acids with 1 to 4 carbons dissolve readily in water, after which water solubility decreases as the nonpolar carbon chain lengthens.

Carboxylic Acid Ionization

A weak acid equilibrium where only a small fraction of the acid ionizes in water ($\text{CH}_3\text{COOH} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{CH}_3\text{COO}^- + \text{H}_3\text{O}^+$).

Carboxylate Salt

The ionic, highly water-soluble product formed when a carboxylic acid is neutralized with a strong base (e.g., $\text{CH}_3\text{COONa}$, sodium acetate).

Carboxylate Salt Nomenclature

A naming process where the metal name is stated first, and the "-ic acid" or "-oic acid" ending of the acid is replaced with "-ate" (e.g., sodium acetate, potassium propanoate).

Carboxylic Acid Form at Physiological pH

At normal physiological pH (about $7.4$), carboxylic acids exist predominantly in their ionized carboxylate form, such as lactate and pyruvate.

High Blood Lactate

A clinical laboratory indicator that signals inadequate oxygen delivery to bodily tissues.

Sodium Benzoate

A common carboxylate salt widely utilized as a food and pharmaceutical preservative.

Esterification

The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst ($\text{H}^+$) and heat to yield an ester and water.

Mechanism of Water Loss in Esterification

The $-OH$ group is removed from the carboxylic acid and the $-H$ is removed from the alcohol, combining together to leave as a water molecule ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$).

Ester Nomenclature

A two-word naming system where the alcohol segment is named first as an alkyl group, and the acid segment is named second with "-ic acid" or "-oic acid" changed to "-ate".

Ethyl Ethanoate (Ethyl Acetate)

An ester ($\text{CH}_3\text{COOCH}_2\text{CH}_3$) produced from ethanoic acid (acetic acid) and ethanol.

Methyl Methanoate (Methyl Formate)

An ester ($\text{HCOOCH}_3$) produced from methanoic acid (formic acid) and methanol.

Ester Boiling Point Behavior

Esters cannot form hydrogen bonds with each other because they lack an $-OH$ group, giving them lower boiling points than carboxylic acids and alcohols of similar size.

Isopentyl Acetate

A sweet-smelling ester characterized by the fruity aroma of banana.

Octyl Acetate

A fragrant ester characterized by the fruity aroma of orange.

Ethyl Butanoate

A pleasant-smelling ester characterized by the fruity aroma of pineapple.

Acid Hydrolysis of Esters

The reverse reaction of esterification, in which water splits an ester in the presence of an acid catalyst ($\text{H}^+$) into a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

Saponification of Esters

Base-promoted hydrolysis of an ester using a strong base like $\text{NaOH}$ to produce a carboxylate salt and an alcohol.

Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid)

A pharmaceutical compound that contains both an ester group and a carboxylic acid group.

Hydrolysis of Old Aspirin

The moisture-induced decomposition of acetylsalicylic acid into salicylic acid and acetic acid, which produces a characteristic vinegar smell.

Thiol Nomenclature

A systematic naming rule in which the full alkane name is retained and the suffix "-thiol" is added (e.g., methanethiol, ethanethiol).

Methanethiol

The simplest one-carbon thiol, having the chemical formula $\text{CH}_3\text{SH}$.

Ethanethiol

A two-carbon thiol having the chemical formula $\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{SH}$.

Natural Gas Odorant

A thiol compound intentionally added to commercial natural gas lines so that gas leaks can be easily detected by smell.

Thiol Boiling Point Behavior

Thiols have lower boiling points than alcohols of similar size because the $\text{S-H}$ bond is much less polar than an $\text{O-H}$ bond and barely forms hydrogen bonds.

Thiol Oxidation

A reaction where two thiol molecules lose hydrogen atoms and join together through a covalent sulfur-sulfur bond ($\text{S-S}$) to yield a disulfide ($2\,\text{CH}_3\text{SH} \rightarrow \text{CH}_3\text{-S-S-CH}_3 + 2\,\text{H}$).

Disulfide Reduction

A chemical reaction that cleaves an $\text{S-S}$ disulfide bond to regenerate two individual thiol ($-\text{SH}$) molecules.

Cysteine

An amino acid containing a thiol ($-\text{SH}$) group capable of forming stabilizing disulfide bridges in proteins.

Disulfide Bridges in Proteins

Covalent bonds between cysteine residues that hold protein three-dimensional structures in shape, including insulin and keratin in hair.

Hair Perm Chemistry

A cosmetic hair treatment that operates by chemically breaking and re-forming disulfide bonds within hair keratin.

Ether Common Nomenclature

A naming method where the two alkyl groups bonded to oxygen are listed in alphabetical order followed by the separate word "ether" (e.g., ethyl methyl ether).

Ether IUPAC Nomenclature

A naming method where the smaller alkyl group plus the oxygen becomes an alkoxy prefix attached to the longer alkane chain (e.g., methoxyethane).

Diethyl Ether

An ether with the formula $\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{OCH}_2\text{CH}_3$, historically recognized as one of the first general anesthetics.

Ether Physical Properties

Compounds that cannot hydrogen bond to each other, having boiling points close to alkanes of similar molar mass, and exhibiting high flammability and low reactivity.

Modern Inhaled Anesthetics

Halogen-substituted ether compounds (such as isoflurane and sevoflurane) engineered to serve as general anesthetics while eliminating flammability.

Primary ($1^\circ$) Amine

An amine in which exactly one carbon group is bonded to the nitrogen atom (e.g., methylamine, $\text{CH}_3\text{NH}_2$).

Secondary ($2^\circ$) Amine

An amine in which exactly two carbon groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom (e.g., dimethylamine, $\text{CH}_3\text{NHCH}_3$).

Tertiary ($3^\circ$) Amine

An amine in which three carbon groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom (e.g., trimethylamine, $(\text{CH}_3)_3\text{N}$).

Amine Common Nomenclature

Listing the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom in alphabetical order, followed by the suffix "amine" (e.g., ethylmethylamine, triethylamine).

Amine IUPAC Nomenclature

Changing the final "-e" of the parent alkane name to "-amine" (e.g., $\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{NH}_2$ is ethanamine).

Hydrogen Bonding in Primary and Secondary Amines

Intermolecular attraction occurring via $\text{N-H}$ bonds that yields boiling points higher than alkanes, but lower than alcohols because $\text{N-H}$ is less polar than $\text{O-H}$.

Hydrogen Bonding in Tertiary Amines

Tertiary amines have no $\text{N-H}$ bonds and cannot hydrogen bond to each other, resulting in lower boiling points than isomeric primary or secondary amines.

Amine Water Solubility Limit

Amines containing up to about 6 carbons dissolve in water because their nitrogen atoms can hydrogen bond with water molecules.

Trimethylamine

A tertiary amine ($(\text{CH}_3)_3\text{N}$) that produces the characteristic smell of fish.

Putrescine and Cadaverine

Biogenic diamines responsible for the offensive odor of animal and biological decay.

Amine Basicity in Water

A reversible weak base reaction where an amine accepts a proton from water to yield an alkylammonium ion and a hydroxide ion ($\text{CH}_3\text{NH}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{CH}_3\text{NH}_3^+ + \text{OH}^-$).

Ammonium Salt

An odorless, water-soluble ionic solid formed when an amine is neutralized by an acid (e.g., methylammonium chloride, $\text{CH}_3\text{NH}_3^+\,\text{Cl}^-$).

Hydrochloride Salts in Pharmacology

The formulation of amine drugs as ammonium salts to increase aqueous solubility in body fluids and enhance chemical stability on the shelf.

Diphenhydramine Hydrochloride

The water-soluble hydrochloride salt form of diphenhydramine, which is the active antihistamine ingredient in Benadryl.

Biological Amine Neurotransmitters

Essential amine-containing chemical messengers in the body, including dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, and histamine.

Alkaloids

Naturally occurring, basic nitrogen-containing amines extracted from plants, such as caffeine, nicotine, and morphine.

Amidation

A reaction where a carboxylic acid combines with ammonia or an amine in the presence of heat to produce an amide and water.

Ethanamide (Acetamide)

The two-carbon primary amide ($\text{CH}_3\text{CONH}_2$), synthesized from ethanoic acid and ammonia.

$N$-Substituted Amides

Amides with an alkyl group bonded directly to the nitrogen, designated by placing an "$N\text{-}$" prefix before the substituent name (e.g., $\text{CH}_3\text{CONHCH}_3$ is $N\text{-methylethanamide}$).

Basicity of Amides

Amides are not basic because the adjacent carbonyl group ($\text{C=O}$) pulls electron density away from the nitrogen atom.

Amide Boiling Points

Amides with $\text{N-H}$ bonds hydrogen bond very strongly to each other, giving them the highest boiling points among comparable functional groups.

Physical State of Amides at Room Temperature

Most amides are solids at room temperature due to strong hydrogen bonding, with methanamide being the only liquid exception.

Methanamide

The simplest one-carbon amide ($\text{HCONH}_2$), notable as the only small amide that is liquid at room temperature.

Amide Water Solubility Limit

Amides containing up to about 5 carbon atoms dissolve in water because their carbonyl and amino groups form hydrogen bonds with water.

Acid Hydrolysis of Amides

A chemical reaction where an amide is heated with water and an acid to produce a carboxylic acid and an ammonium salt.

Base Hydrolysis of Amides

A chemical reaction where an amide is heated with an aqueous strong base ($\text{NaOH}$) to yield a carboxylate salt and ammonia or an amine.

Peptide Bond

An amide linkage that covalently bonds amino acids together in proteins, formed between the carbonyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Therapeutic Amides

Clinical drugs that contain amide functional groups, including acetaminophen (Tylenol), penicillin, and the local anesthetic lidocaine.

Urea

The principal nitrogenous end product and waste molecule in urine, structured chemically as an amide.

Hydrogen Bonding Criteria for High Boiling Point

A compound must possess an $\text{O-H}$ or $\text{N-H}$ bond so that individual molecules can form hydrogen bonds to one another.

Hydrogen Bonding Criteria for Water Solubility

A compound must contain an electronegative oxygen or nitrogen atom that can accept hydrogen bonds from water, provided its carbon chain is relatively short.

Boiling Point Hierarchy for Similar Molar Mass

The relative order of boiling points for compounds of similar size: $\text{amide} > \text{carboxylic acid} > \text{alcohol} > \text{amine} > \text{ester} > \text{ether} > \text{alkane}$.

Boiling Point of Ethanol vs. Dimethyl Ether

Ethanol ($\text{CH}_3\text{CH}_2\text{OH}$) has a higher boiling point than dimethyl ether ($\text{CH}_3\text{OCH}_3$) because ethanol has an $\text{O-H}$ bond that allows hydrogen bonding between molecules.

Carbohydrates

Biomolecules characterized by multiple hydroxyl groups ($-\text{OH}$) plus an aldehyde or ketone carbonyl group, serving as the body's main quick energy source.

Three Classes of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides (single sugar units), disaccharides (two sugar units joined by a glycosidic bond), and polysaccharides (polymers of many sugar units).

Monosaccharide

A carbohydrate composed of a single sugar unit that cannot be split into simpler carbohydrates by hydrolysis.

Disaccharide

A carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide units joined together by a glycosidic bond.

Polysaccharide

A complex carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharide units linked together into long unbranched or branched chains.

Aldose

A monosaccharide containing an aldehyde functional group ($\text{C=O}$ at the terminal end of the carbon chain).

Ketose

A monosaccharide containing a ketone functional group ($\text{C=O}$ in the middle of the chain, typically on carbon 2).

Sugar Classification by Carbon Number

Naming sugars by the number of carbons in their skeleton: triose (3 C), tetrose (4 C), pentose (5 C), and hexose (6 C).

Glucose

An aldohexose known as "blood sugar" that serves as the primary metabolic fuel for cells and the human brain.

Galactose

An aldohexose that constitutes one of the two monosaccharide components of the milk sugar lactose.

Fructose

A ketohexose found naturally in fruit and honey, recognized as the sweetest sugar.

Ribose

A five-carbon aldopentose that forms an essential structural part of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Chiral Carbon

A carbon atom bonded to four entirely different atoms or chemical groups.