History Exam 2

Patricians

The wealthy, aristocratic families who traditionally held most of the political power in early Rome

Tribunes

Elected officials who represented and protected the interests of the plebeians, or common people. They could veto certain government actions.

Consuls

The two chief elected officials of the Roman Republic who held executive and military authority.

Struggle of the Orders

The long political conflict between patricians and plebeians over political rights and equality in the Roman Republic.

Cicero

A famous Roman orator, lawyer, and politician who defended the Roman Republic and opposed Julius Caesar's concentration of power.

First Triumvirate

An informal political alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus that helped them gain political power.

Julius Caesar

Roman general and politician who conquered Gaul, became dictator, and was assassinated in 44 BCE. His rise contributed to the end of the Republic.

Second Triumvirate

The official political alliance of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, formed after Julius Caesar's assassination.

Tiberius Gracchus

Roman tribune who advocated land reforms to help poorer Roman citizens. His political conflict with the elite contributed to growing violence in Roman politics.

Carthage

A powerful ancient city in North Africa that competed with Rome for control of the western Mediterranean.

Punic Wars

The series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 to 146 BCE. Rome ultimately destroyed Carthage.

Hannibal

The Carthaginian general who invaded Italy during the Second Punic War and famously crossed the Alps with his army, including war elephants.

146 BCE

The year Rome destroyed Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War. Rome also destroyed Corinth in Greece that year.

31 BCE

The year Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, establishing himself as the dominant power in the Roman world.

Cleopatra

The last active ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt. She allied with Julius Caesar and later Mark Antony before being defeated alongside Antony by Octavian.

Mark Antony

Roman general and politician who served in the Second Triumvirate, allied with Cleopatra, and lost to Octavian at Actium in 31 BCE.

Antonine Dynasty

A period of Roman emperors beginning with Nerva in 96 CE and traditionally ending with Commodus in 192 CE. It included emperors such as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius.

Nero

Roman emperor from 54 to 68 CE, remembered for his autocratic rule, the persecution of some Christians, and the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE.

Diocletian

Roman emperor from 284 to 305 CE who reorganized the empire, introduced the Tetrarchy, and strengthened imperial administration.

Constantine (the emperor)

Roman emperor who legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE and called the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE.

Constantinople (the city)

Constantinople was established as his imperial capital in 330 CE, formerly Byzantium. It later became the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Emperor Julian

Roman emperor from 361 to 363 CE who attempted to restore traditional Roman religion and reverse Christianity's growing influence. He is often called Julian the Apostate.

Septimius Severus

Roman emperor from 193 to 211 CE who founded the Severan dynasty and strengthened the military's role in imperial government.

Paul of Tarsus

An early Christian missionary who spread Christianity among Gentiles (non-Jews) and wrote letters that became part of the New Testament.

Pontius Pilate

The Roman governor of Judaea who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus according to the New Testament accounts.

Arian Controversy

A theological dispute over whether Jesus Christ was fully equal and co-eternal with God the Father. Arius argued that the Son was subordinate to the Father and was not co-eternal with him.

Gnostics

Followers of religious movements that emphasized special spiritual knowledge, called gnosis, as a means of salvation or liberation. Some Gnostic groups taught that the material world was created by an inferior divine being.

Essenes

A Jewish religious community in the Second Temple period, often associated with strict religious practices and sometimes linked to the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Romulus

The legendary founder of Rome, traditionally said to have founded the city in 753 BCE with his twin brother Remus.

Nabataeans

An ancient Arab people who established a kingdom centered on Petra and became wealthy through trade routes linking Arabia with the Mediterranean.