Apes unit one test

What is sustainability?

Using resources at a rate that lets them be replenished, meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs.

What is maximum sustainable yield (MSY)?

The largest amount of a renewable resource (fish, timber) that can be harvested each year without reducing its ability to renew itself long term.

What is the Tragedy of the Commons?

When individuals acting in self-interest overuse a shared, open-access resource (pasture, fishery, air, water), depleting it for everyone.

How do we address the Tragedy of the Commons?

Regulations and quotas, permits and fees, privatization or community management, education, international agreements, enforcement.

What is an ecological footprint?

The total land and water area needed to produce the resources a person or population consumes and to absorb the waste it produces.

How can we reduce our ecological footprint?

Eat less meat and eat local, use public transit/bike/EVs, conserve energy and water, use renewable energy, reduce-reuse-recycle, buy less, use efficient appliances.

Small energy conservation steps at home?

LED bulbs, unplug electronics, adjust thermostat, seal drafts, cold-water laundry, line-dry clothes, Energy Star appliances, shorter showers.

Larger energy conservation techniques?

Insulation and weatherization, double-pane windows, solar panels, heat pumps, green building design, hybrid/electric vehicles, public transit, smart grids, cogeneration, CAFE standards.

Renewable resource

Replenished naturally on a human timescale (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass, tidal).

Nonrenewable resource

Finite or forms over millions of years (coal, oil, natural gas, uranium).

3 main countries that have oil

Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada (also Iran, Iraq).

3 main countries that use oil

United States, China, India.

3 main countries that have natural gas

Russia, Iran, Qatar.

3 main countries that use natural gas

United States, Russia, China.

3 main countries that have coal

United States, Russia, Australia (also China, India).

3 main countries that use coal

China, India, United States.

As a country becomes more industrialized, its energy use and dependence ______.

Increases.

Wood as a fuel

Burned for heating and cooking (biomass); main fuel in many developing regions.

Peat as a fuel

Partially decomposed plant matter from bogs; burned for heat and electricity (Ireland, Finland, Russia); low energy content, high CO2.

Lignite

Lowest-rank coal: lowest carbon and energy content.

Bituminous coal

Most common coal; mid-range energy; used for electricity and steel.

Anthracite

Highest-rank coal: highest carbon and energy, cleanest burning.

Natural gas as a fuel

Mostly methane; used for heating, cooking, electricity; cleanest fossil fuel.

Crude oil as a fuel

Refined by fractional distillation into gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating oil, asphalt, plastics and petrochemicals.

What is cogeneration (CHP)?

Using waste heat from electricity generation for heating or industrial processes.

Benefits of cogeneration

Efficiency of about 70-90% vs about 35-40% for electricity alone; less fuel burned; lower emissions and costs.

Combustion reaction formula

CxHx + O2 -> CO2 + H2O (+ energy)

How do fossil fuels make electricity?

Burn fuel -> heat boils water -> steam spins a turbine -> turbine spins a generator -> electricity. Steam is condensed and reused.

Fossil fuel extraction techniques

Surface mining (strip, open-pit, mountaintop removal), subsurface mining, conventional and offshore drilling, tar/oil sands, hydraulic fracturing.

What is fracking?

Injecting high-pressure water, sand, and chemicals into shale to fracture rock and release trapped gas or oil.

Side effects of fracking

Groundwater contamination, huge water use, wastewater disposal, methane leaks, induced earthquakes, habitat disruption.

Main pollutants from coal combustion

CO2, SO2, NOx, particulates (fly ash), mercury and other heavy metals, CO.

Pollutants from all fossil fuel burning

CO2, CO, NOx, VOCs/unburned hydrocarbons, particulates, SO2 (mainly coal and oil).

SPLONC: what does it stand for?

Sulfur dioxide, Particulates, Lead, Ozone, Nitrogen oxides, Carbon monoxide (pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act and EPA).

Which SPLONC pollutant has been reduced most successfully?

Lead (leaded gasoline and paint were phased out).

Primary pollutant

Emitted directly from a source (CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, VOCs, particulates, lead).

Secondary pollutant

Forms in the atmosphere when primary pollutants react (ozone, PAN, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, photochemical smog).

Carbon monoxide (indoor): what, source, effect

Colorless, odorless gas from incomplete combustion (furnaces, gas stoves, fireplaces, car exhaust). Binds hemoglobin instead of oxygen: headaches, dizziness, death.

Asbestos

Old insulation, tiles, building materials. Causes asbestosis, lung cancer, mesothelioma.

Indoor smoke

From tobacco, fireplaces, wood stoves. Causes respiratory disease, asthma, lung cancer.

Indoor dust

Skin, pollen, dust mites, pet dander. Causes allergies and asthma.

Radon

Radioactive gas from uranium decay in rock/soil; seeps through foundations and basements. #2 cause of lung cancer.

Mold

Grows in damp, humid areas. Causes allergies, asthma, respiratory irritation.

VOCs (indoor)

From paints, cleaners, furniture, carpet, air fresheners. Cause headaches, eye/throat irritation, organ damage, some cancers.

Formaldehyde

From pressed wood, glues, insulation, new furniture. Causes eye/respiratory irritation and cancer.

Lead (indoor)

From old paint and pipes. Causes nervous system damage, especially in children.

Major components of Earth's atmosphere

Nitrogen ~78%, oxygen ~21%, argon ~0.9%, CO2 ~0.04%, water vapor 0-4% (variable).

Troposphere

0 to ~12 km; where we live and weather happens; most of the air's mass; temperature drops with height.

Stratosphere

~12 to 50 km; contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV; temperature rises with height.

Mesosphere

~50 to 85 km; coldest layer; meteors burn up.

Thermosphere

~85 to 600 km; very hot, thin air; auroras; satellites and the ISS.

Where is oil found?

Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq), Venezuela, Canada, Russia, United States.

Where is natural gas found?

Russia, Iran, Qatar, United States.

Where is coal found?

United States, Russia, China, Australia, India.

Where are key minerals found?

Lithium (Australia, Chile), cobalt (DR Congo), copper (Chile), platinum (South Africa), bauxite (Australia, Guinea), rare earths (China), iron ore (Australia, Brazil).

What causes photochemical smog?

Sunlight reacting with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and VOCs, forming ground-level ozone and PAN.

Chemical reactions of photochemical smog

N2 + O2 -> 2NO (engine heat); 2NO + O2 -> 2NO2; NO2 + sunlight -> NO + O; O + O2 -> O3; NOx + VOCs + sunlight -> ozone + PAN.

When is NOx highest during the day?

Morning rush hour (~6-9 a.m.).

When is ozone highest and why?

Afternoon (~noon-4 p.m.) because it needs strong sunlight and NO2 that built up in the morning.

Sources of VOCs

Natural: trees (isoprene, terpenes), wetlands, vegetation. Artificial: gasoline vapors, paints, solvents, cleaning products, industry.

Why is smog more common in urban areas?

More cars and industry (NOx and VOCs), dense development, heat islands, and geography that can trap air.

How to reduce photochemical smog

Catalytic converters, vapor recovery nozzles, public transit/EVs, low-VOC products, emissions standards, driving less on hot days, cleaner power plants.

How is photochemical smog harmful to humans?

Eye, nose, throat irritation; asthma attacks; reduced lung function; lung damage. Also damages crops, plants, and rubber.

How does a thermal inversion work?

A layer of warm air sits above cooler air near the ground, acting like a lid that stops the cool air from rising.

Why are thermal inversions problematic?

Pollutants are trapped near the surface and concentrate, intensifying smog and causing respiratory problems.

Example cities with thermal inversions

Los Angeles, Mexico City, Denver, Salt Lake City, Beijing (valleys/basins ringed by mountains).

Natural sources of CO2

Respiration, decomposition, volcanoes, wildfires, ocean outgassing.

Anthropogenic sources of CO2

Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, cement production, agriculture.

Natural sources of particulates

Volcanic ash, dust storms, wildfires, sea spray, pollen.

Anthropogenic sources of particulates

Coal burning, diesel exhaust, construction, agricultural tilling, burning biomass.

Reducing air pollutants: Reduce

Use less energy, drive less, buy less.

Reducing air pollutants: Conservation

Improve efficiency (insulation, efficient appliances and vehicles).

Reducing air pollutants: Alternative fuels

Solar, wind, hydro, hydrogen, biofuels, natural gas.

What do vapor recovery nozzles do?

Capture gasoline vapors (VOCs) during refueling so they do not escape into the air.

What does a catalytic converter do?

Uses catalysts (platinum, palladium, rhodium) in car exhaust to convert harmful gases into less harmful ones.

Catalytic converter: what it converts

CO, NOx, and unburned hydrocarbons.

Catalytic converter: what they become

CO2, N2, H2O (and O2).

What do wet and dry scrubbers do?

Remove pollutants from smokestack gas. Wet: spray water or limestone slurry. Dry: inject dry sorbent (lime) that reacts with the gas.

What pollutants do scrubbers remove?

SO2 (also some acid gases and particulates).

What do electrostatic precipitators do?

Give particles an electric charge, then collect them on oppositely charged plates.

What pollutants do electrostatic precipitators remove?

Particulates (ash, soot, dust).

What chemicals cause acid rain?

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Sources of acid rain chemicals

Natural: volcanoes, lightning, wildfires, decomposition. Man-made: coal power plants, vehicles, industry, smelting.

Main acid rain formulas

SO2 + H2O -> H2SO3 (or SO3 + H2O -> H2SO4, sulfuric acid); NO2 + H2O -> HNO3 (nitric acid).

Environmental effects of acid rain

Acidifies lakes and streams (pH below 5 kills fish and amphibian eggs), leaches soil nutrients (Ca, Mg) and frees toxic aluminum, damages forests, corrodes buildings, statues, and metal.

How do soil types affect acid rain potency?

Limestone or alkaline soils buffer acid; thin, granite-based soils have little buffering, so ecosystems are hit harder.

What can neutralize acid rain?

Bases such as limestone (calcium carbonate) or lime added to lakes and soil (liming).

Long-term solution for acid rain

Cut SO2 and NOx emissions: scrubbers, renewable energy, burning less coal, catalytic converters, cap-and-trade.

What is solid waste?

Any discarded solid material from homes, businesses, industry, and agriculture (municipal solid waste = household and commercial trash).

Three ways we dispose of waste

Landfilling, incineration, ocean dumping (plus recycling and composting as diversion).

What is e-waste and what are the concerns?

Discarded electronics. Toxic heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) leach into soil and water; often exported and dismantled unsafely.

Problems with landfills

Leachate contaminating groundwater, methane and odors, running out of space, land use, pests, slow decomposition.

What is a sanitary landfill?

An engineered landfill where waste is compacted and covered with soil daily, with liners and systems to control leachate and gas.

Important layers/components of a sanitary landfill

Clay and plastic liner, leachate collection system, daily soil cover, methane collection pipes, final cap (clay and soil), groundwater monitoring wells.

How does waste break down in a landfill?

Mostly anaerobic decomposition (little oxygen), which is very slow and produces methane.

What is not allowed in a sanitary landfill?

Hazardous waste (paint, solvents, pesticides), batteries, electronics, liquids, and often tires and yard waste.

What helps landfill waste break down?

Moisture and oxygen, shredding waste, less compaction (bioreactor landfills).

How are banned landfill items disposed of?

Hazardous waste collection events or facilities, special e-waste/battery recycling, take-back programs.

How does incineration work?

Burning waste at high temperature, reducing volume by ~90%; heat can generate electricity (waste-to-energy).

Drawbacks of incineration

Air pollution (dioxins, heavy metals, particulates), toxic ash, high cost, discourages recycling.