Learning and Behavior Ch 1-5

What is learning?

A relatively lasting change in behavior that happens because of experience. Example: You become better at driving after practicing regularly.

What is behavior?

An observable or measurable action or activity, including actions inside the body or mind. Example: Writing notes is observable, while silently thinking through an answer is internal.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning that occurs when one stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus, causing a previously neutral cue to trigger an automatic or involuntary response. Example: You feel nervous when you hear a hospital monitor because you associate the sound with a stressful medical experience.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning in which behavior becomes more or less likely depending on what happens after the behavior. Example: A student studies more often after receiving praise for good grades.

How can you tell the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning focuses on learning which stimuli predict other events and the responses they trigger. Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences change behavior. Example: Feeling nervous when a notification sounds is classical; studying more because you earn rewards is operant.

What is behaviorism?

An approach to psychology that studies behavior scientifically, using observable evidence and examining environmental influences and learning experiences. Example: Instead of calling a student lazy, a researcher measures how often the student starts assignments late.

What is a stimulus?

An event or change in the environment that can influence behavior. Example: A phone buzzing causes you to look at it.

What is a response?

A particular action or reaction to a stimulus or situation. Example: Looking at your phone after it buzzes.

What is the stimulus-response relationship?

A connection between an event in the environment and a behavior or reaction that follows it. Example: A loud bang causes someone to jump.

What did Aristotle believe about learning?

Knowledge and associations develop through experience. Example: A child learns that a stove is hot after being warned or experiencing its heat.

What did Plato believe about knowledge?

Many abilities or tendencies are inborn rather than learned entirely through experience. Example: This perspective emphasizes what a person may bring into the world naturally.

What are the four laws of association associated with Aristotle?

Similarity, contrast, contiguity, and frequency. Example: You associate two people because they wear similar uniforms, or associate thunder and lightning because they occur close together.

What is similarity in association?

Things that resemble each other are more likely to become associated. Example: You connect two students because they wear the same sports-team jersey.

What is contrast in association?

Things can become associated because their differences stand out. Example: You remember the difference between a bright blue shirt and a pale blue shirt.

What is contiguity in association?

Two events occur close together in time or space, making an association more likely. Example: You repeatedly hear thunder shortly after seeing lightning.

What is frequency in association?

The more often events occur together, the stronger their association may become. Example: You associate a particular perfume with a friend because you smell it whenever you see them.

What is mind-body dualism?

The idea that the mind and body are distinct, with some actions occurring automatically and others involving mental control. Example: You automatically blink when something approaches your eye but consciously decide to raise your hand.

What is structuralism?

An approach that tries to understand the mind by identifying its basic elements, such as sensations and feelings. Example: A person describes the individual sensations they experience when tasting a lemon.

What is introspection?

Examining and describing one's own thoughts, emotions, and sensations. Example: You reflect on whether you feel nervous, excited, or frustrated before an exam.

What is functionalism?

An approach that studies how mental processes help people adapt to their environment. Example: Fear helps someone recognize danger and respond to it.

What is natural selection?

The process by which heritable characteristics that help organisms survive and reproduce can become more common across generations. Example: An animal with coloring that helps it avoid predators may be more likely to reproduce.

What did John B. Watson contribute to psychology?

He helped establish behaviorism and emphasized studying observable behavior and stimulus-response relationships. Example: A researcher measures how a child reacts to a loud noise rather than relying only on the child's description of their feelings.

What is methodological behaviorism?

The approach associated with Watson that emphasizes directly observable behavior as the proper subject of scientific study. Example: A researcher records how often a person checks their phone instead of making assumptions about their thoughts.

What did Clark Hull contribute to learning theory?

He developed neobehaviorism, which used internal variables such as hunger or other physiological states to help explain connections between the environment and behavior. Example: A hungry person may work harder to obtain food.

What is neobehaviorism?

An approach that explains behavior using observable environmental events and theoretical internal variables. Example: A scientist considers how hunger may influence an animal's effort to obtain food.

What did Edward Tolman contribute to psychology?

He developed cognitive behaviorism and studied cognitive maps and latent learning. Example: A person learns the layout of a campus while walking around, even before needing to find a particular building.

What is a cognitive map?

A mental representation of the layout of an environment. Example: You know how to walk from your classroom to the library without looking at a map.

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without an immediate reward and becomes evident later when there is a reason to use what was learned. Example: You explore a building without a goal, then later find a classroom quickly because you already know the layout.

What did Albert Bandura contribute to psychology?

He emphasized learning by observing other people and the role of thoughts and feelings in behavior. Example: A child learns how to tie shoes by watching an older sibling.

What is reciprocal determinism?

The idea that a person's behavior, environment, and thoughts or feelings influence one another. Example: A confident student participates in class, receives positive feedback, and becomes more confident.

What did B. F. Skinner contribute to psychology?

He emphasized how consequences influence behavior and developed radical behaviorism. Example: A student who receives praise after completing homework may be more likely to complete it again.

What is radical behaviorism?

Skinner's approach, which emphasizes the role of environmental influences and includes behavior within a broader scientific analysis rather than relying on unobservable mental explanations as the cause. Example: A researcher examines when a student avoids homework and what happens afterward.

What is countercontrol?

Changing or resisting environmental influences when a person recognizes how those influences affect their behavior. Example: A student silences phone notifications to avoid being distracted while studying.

What is observational learning?

Acquiring a behavior by watching another person, even without personally receiving a reward. Example: You learn how to use a laboratory instrument by watching a classmate demonstrate it.

What is applied behavior analysis?

Applying principles of behavior and learning to understand and address practical problems. Example: A teacher uses clear instructions and positive reinforcement to help a student complete classroom tasks.

What is a variable?

Something that can change between people, situations, or points in time. Example: Hours of sleep can vary from one student to another.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The factor a researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment. Example: A researcher assigns students to study with music or without music.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The outcome that a researcher measures to see whether it changes with the independent variable. Example: In a study about music and learning, the quiz score is the measured outcome.

What is a functional relationship?

A systematic relationship in which changes in one variable correspond to changes in another. Example: When a researcher changes study conditions and students' time on task changes consistently, the results may support a functional relationship.

What is an operational definition?

A precise description of how a behavior or variable will be identified and measured. Example: Procrastination is measured as the number of minutes between the planned study time and the actual start time.

Why are operational definitions important?

They make concepts specific enough to measure consistently and allow different observers to understand what counts as the behavior. Example: Defining participation as the number of times a student speaks during class is clearer than calling the student engaged.

What is frequency?

The number of times a behavior occurs during a specific period. Example: A student checks their phone six times during a 30-minute lecture.

What is duration?

The amount of time a behavior continues. Example: A student studies for 45 minutes.

What is latency?

The amount of time between a cue or instruction and the beginning of a behavior. Example: A student waits eight minutes after sitting at their desk before opening the assignment.

What is rate of response?

The number of times a behavior occurs within a unit of time. Example: A student answers four practice questions per minute.

What is intensity or magnitude?

The strength, force, or amount of a response. Example: A researcher measures how much saliva a dog produces after a food cue.

What is topography?

The physical form or way a behavior is performed. Example: A researcher records whether a person presses a lever with one finger or the whole hand.

What is interval recording?

Recording whether a behavior occurs during each interval in a continuous series of observation intervals. Example: A teacher observes a classroom video and marks whether a student is on task during each 30-second interval.

What is time-sample recording?

Checking whether a behavior occurs during selected intervals that are separated by periods without observation. Example: An observer checks a classroom for five minutes at the beginning of each hour.

What is interobserver reliability?

The degree to which two or more independent observers agree when recording the same behavior. Example: Two researchers agree on whether a student was on task in 10 of 12 intervals, giving about 83.3% agreement.

What is reliability?

The consistency of a measurement or observation. Example: A scale gives nearly the same reading each time the same object is weighed under the same conditions.

What is validity?

The degree to which a measure actually assesses what it is intended to measure. Example: A driving test that measures actual driving skills is more relevant to driving ability than a test asking only about driving vocabulary.

What is the difference between reliability and validity?

Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring the intended thing. Example: A broken scale might consistently show a weight five pounds too high, making it consistent but inaccurate.

What is descriptive research?

Research that observes and records behavior and the circumstances in which it occurs without manipulating variables to establish cause and effect. Example: A researcher records how often students use their phones in the library.

What is naturalistic observation?

Systematically watching and recording behavior in its normal environment. Example: A researcher observes how children share toys on a playground.

What is experimental research?

Research that manipulates one or more independent variables and measures the outcomes to investigate cause and effect. Example: Researchers assign students to different study conditions and compare their quiz scores.

What is a control group?

A group that does not receive the experimental treatment or receives a comparison condition, allowing researchers to compare outcomes. Example: One group studies without music while another group studies with music.

What is a group design?

A research design that compares results across groups of participants exposed to different conditions. Example: Researchers compare the average quiz scores of two groups using different study methods.

What is a single-subject design?

A research design that examines changes in behavior for an individual or a small number of subjects across different conditions or phases. Example: A researcher measures one student's assignment completion before and after introducing a reward system.

What is the A phase in a single-subject design?

The baseline phase, in which behavior is measured before the intervention begins. Example: A teacher records how many assignments a student completes before introducing a reward.

What is the B phase in a single-subject design?

The intervention or treatment phase, when a strategy is introduced. Example: The teacher begins rewarding the student for completing assignments.

What is an AB design?

A design that measures behavior during baseline and then during treatment, without withdrawing the treatment. Example: A researcher records phone use before and after introducing a phone-free study rule.

What is an ABA design?

A design with baseline, treatment, and then withdrawal of treatment. Example: A researcher measures a student's behavior, introduces a reward, then removes the reward to see whether the behavior changes.

What is an ABAB design?

A design that measures baseline, introduces treatment, withdraws treatment, and then introduces treatment again. Example: A reward improves homework completion, removal reduces it, and reintroducing the reward improves it again.

What is a multiple-baseline design?

A design in which an intervention is introduced at different times across people, settings, or behaviors. Example: A teacher introduces a study routine for one student first, then later introduces it for two other students.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research records what happens; experimental research manipulates a condition to test whether it causes a change. Example: Observing students' sleep habits is descriptive, while assigning different sleep schedules and measuring performance is experimental.

What is elicited or respondent behavior?

Behavior that is drawn out by an antecedent stimulus. Example: A sudden loud noise makes you jump.

What is a reflex?

A relatively simple, automatic stimulus-response reaction. Example: You blink when air suddenly blows toward your eye.

What is a fixed action pattern?

An organized sequence of behavior that is relatively automatic and characteristic of a species, often triggered by a specific stimulus. Example: Certain animals perform a predictable courtship or nest-protection sequence when the appropriate cue appears.

What is habituation?

A decrease in responsiveness after repeated exposure to a stimulus that does not require a significant reaction. Example: At first, traffic outside your home keeps you awake, but eventually you barely notice it.

What is sensitization?

An increase in responsiveness following stimulation, especially after a strong or intense event. Example: After hearing a frightening crash, you become jumpier whenever you hear a small noise.

What is dishabituation?

The temporary return of a response that had decreased through repeated exposure, often after a new stimulus occurs. Example: You stop noticing a ticking clock, but a sudden slammed door makes you notice the ticking again.

What is the difference between habituation and extinction?

Habituation is a reduced response to repeated exposure to a stimulus. Extinction is the weakening of a learned response when a conditioned cue is repeatedly presented without the event it previously predicted. Example: Ignoring a ticking clock is habituation; no longer expecting tacos after hearing a jingle that repeatedly plays without tacos is extinction.

What is opponent-process theory?

An explanation of emotional reactions in which an initial response is followed by a slower, opposing response that can change with repeated experiences. Example: An intense amusement-park ride first produces excitement and later may leave a person feeling uneasy or drained.

What is the a-process?

The initial emotional or physiological reaction to an event. Example: The immediate excitement you feel when a roller coaster begins its descent.

What is the b-process?

A slower, opposing reaction that counteracts the initial reaction and may grow stronger with repeated experiences. Example: After repeated intense rides, the uneasy feeling afterward may last longer.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that initially does not produce the specific response being studied. Example: Before learning, a metronome click does not cause a dog to salivate.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior conditioning. Example: Food naturally causes a hungry dog to salivate.

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. Example: A dog salivates when food is placed in its mouth.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A stimulus that was initially neutral but acquired the ability to trigger a learned response after being associated with another stimulus. Example: After repeated pairings with food, a metronome click causes a dog to salivate.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A learned reaction triggered by a previously neutral cue after conditioning. Example: A dog salivates when it hears the metronome click, even before food appears.

How do you identify the five components in a metronome-and-food experiment?

Before learning, the click is the NS; food is the US; salivation to food is the UR. After repeated pairings, the click becomes the CS and salivation to the click is the CR.

What is appetitive conditioning?

Learning in which the event being predicted is desirable or something the organism seeks. Example: A dog becomes excited when it hears a can opener because the sound predicts food.

What is aversive conditioning?

Learning in which the event being predicted is unpleasant or something the organism avoids. Example: A person becomes anxious when hearing a sound associated with a frightening experience.

What is temporal contiguity?

Two events occur close together in time. Example: A phone buzzes and a notification immediately appears.

What is spatial contiguity?

Two events or objects are close together in physical space. Example: Keeping a snack beside your desk places it near the activity of studying.

What is contingency in learning?

A predictive relationship in which one event provides information about whether another event is likely to occur. Example: A particular jingle reliably predicts the arrival of a taco truck.

Why is predictiveness important in classical conditioning?

Learning depends on whether a cue provides useful information about what will happen, not merely whether two events occur close together. Example: A bell that reliably predicts food is more informative than a bell that sounds randomly regardless of whether food appears.

What is excitatory conditioning?

Learning in which a cue signals that an important event is likely to occur. Example: A particular tone predicts food, so a dog begins salivating when it hears the tone.

What is inhibitory conditioning?

Learning in which a cue signals that an expected event will not occur under particular conditions. Example: A tone normally predicts food, but a light presented with the tone signals that food will be withheld.

What is pseudoconditioning?

An increased response to a stimulus that appears to result from pairing but may instead result from general sensitization caused by repeated or intense stimulation. Example: After several startling noises, an animal responds strongly to many sounds, not just the one paired with another event.

What is acquisition?

The process in which repeated pairings of a cue with an important event strengthen the learned response. Example: Each time the taco-truck jingle precedes tacos, a student becomes more excited when hearing it.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening of a learned response when the conditioned cue is repeatedly presented without the event it previously predicted. Example: The taco-truck jingle plays repeatedly without tacos, and people gradually stop anticipating food.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The return of a previously weakened conditioned response after a period of time without additional conditioning. Example: After months without hearing the taco-truck jingle, a person hears it again and briefly feels hungry.

What is rapid reacquisition?

The learned response is acquired again more quickly when the original cue-event pairings are reintroduced after extinction. Example: After the taco truck returns and serves food with the familiar jingle, anticipation develops quickly again.

What is the difference between spontaneous recovery and rapid reacquisition?

Spontaneous recovery is the return of a response after a break, without new pairings. Rapid reacquisition is faster relearning after the cue and event are paired again. Example: Feeling hungry when the old jingle returns after a long break is spontaneous recovery; quickly learning that the truck is serving tacos again is rapid reacquisition.

What is stimulus generalization?

A learned response spreads from the original cue to other similar cues. Example: After being frightened by one large dog, a person becomes nervous around other large dogs.

What is stimulus discrimination?

Learning to respond differently to cues because only a particular cue reliably predicts the important event. Example: A person learns that one specific dog is friendly and does not react fearfully to every dog.

What is the difference between generalization and discrimination?

Generalization means responding similarly to related cues; discrimination means distinguishing between them. Example: Fear of all elevators after one frightening elevator ride is generalization; fear only of the elevator associated with the incident is discrimination.

What is higher-order conditioning?

An already conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral cue, allowing the new cue to acquire the ability to trigger a learned response. Example: A taco jingle already predicts tacos. A purple flag is repeatedly shown with the jingle, and eventually the flag alone triggers taco anticipation.