baba contemporary urban env

What terms does AQA use in the urbanisation unit?

AQA uses the following terms in this unit:

· HDE - Highly Developed Economy

· EME - Emerging Market Economy

· LDE - Less Developed Economy

Why are cities important to people?

Cities have always had a magnetic pull and been centres of innovation, decision-making and exchange of ideas. Even in their early days, cities surrounded themselves with walls for protection against invasion and immigration. Anyone not living in a city felt like a second-class citizen.

Cities were places people went to make their fortunes. People living in cities have always enjoyed more freedom and possibilities for development than those living outside their boundaries. Cities offer more job opportunities and higher incomes for people; for businesses it includes lower input costs and greater collaboration and innovation opportunities - universities, theatres and stadiums.

Cities are symbols of all human errors and corruptions - Chicago, Detroit, Rome, Paris and New York. Cities are a model of successful urban development for economic, social and cultural exchanges. Cities are centres of political power and decision-making - governments, courts and the UN. Cities are a beacon of hope and freedom of a better future - New York, Mumbai, Shanghai, Mexico City, London.

In 50 years' time, more than 75% of the world's population will live in cities.

What problems are associated with urbanisation?

Problems become more concentrated in close confines of urban areas, yet cities are poised for unlimited growth - megacities such as Mumbai, Mexico City and Tokyo. Today there is not enough energy and water for everyone and in some places, security is only available for those who can pay - Mumbai and Rio de Janeiro.

If a city's economic strength wanes, it will fail and this can lead to a failing state - Detroit. Cities are threatened by scarce resources, environmental problems, new diseases, uncontrolled growth and migration.

An estimated 3 billion people will require adequate and affordable housing by 2030 - London, Los Angeles and Rio de Janeiro. With a further predicted 1.6 billion people living in slums - Rio de Janeiro, Mumbai, and Lagos. By 2050, 70% of the population will be urbanites (UN 2022), making 95% of the world's total population living on 10% of the land. In 2020 4% of the earth's surface was occupied by cities, with 56% of the world's population living in those cities.

"If the city is to remain the driving force behind human development, we need to reinvent it now; otherwise there is a risk that it will become the final stage of human civilisation in the twenty-first century" - Wolfgang Nowak, 2007.

What is urbanisation and what are the patterns of urban growth?

Urbanisation is the progressive concentration of the population into urban areas over time. Caused through a combination of high natural increases of the urban population and the process of rural-urban migration.

Urbanisation varies across the globe. HDEs show the highest levels of urbanisation, with the lowest levels being in Africa and SE Asia. More people now live in towns and cities than in rural areas. In 1945, less than a third of the world's population lived in urban areas. World population doubled between 1950 and 2015, but the urban population more than trebled due to:

· The decline of industry in HDEs, as the industry moved overseas to EMEs and LDEs to take advantage of a cheaper workforce, government incentives, tax breaks, etc.

· Which led to industrial growth in EMEs and 'pulled' people from rural regions to urban areas, with the hope of a better life and employment

High rates of urbanisation occur in HDEs because:

· Most new economic development is concentrated in the big cities

· Push-pull factors lead to high rates of rural-to-urban migration

· Cities are experiencing higher levels of natural increase in population

Examiner Tip: Natural increase does not include the inward migration of people to a place, just the number of births vs. the number of deaths. E.g., on one street, there were 5 new migrants, 10 births, and 2 deaths. The natural increase is 8 people because the migrants chose to move there. If they then had children, then those children would be included in the natural increase rate.

What are the definitions of urban terms?

Urban can refer to towns and cities.

· Urban - the distinctive characteristics of towns and cities; their size and density, environment and ways of life

· Rural - the character of country areas and the activities and lifestyles encountered in such areas

· Urbanisation - the process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population come to, and live in, towns and cities

· Urban growth - growth in the total population numbers and/or physical expansion of the urban area

Development generates urbanisation. As countries become more developed they become more urbanised. The process of urbanisation started to accelerate over 200 years ago, as countries went through the Industrial Revolution - the UK, Europe, North America and some EMEs.

How does urbanisation differ between HDEs, EMEs and LDEs?

HDEs (e.g. UK, Germany, Japan, and America):

· Causes: Because the industrial revolution 'pulled' the population into developing urban areas at that time. Nowadays, many people in HDEs are being 'pushed' away from overcrowded cities to rural settlements. HDEs tend to have good transport and communication networks; therefore, people can live in rural areas and commute to cities or work from home. HDEs have lower rates of urbanisation as towns and cities already exist.

EMEs (e.g. India, Russia, Brazil and China):

· Key trade hub cities are seeing greater growth than others due to investment from the government and TNCs. Cities such as Lagos in Nigeria, Shanghai in China, Mumbai in India, Sao Paulo in Brazil and St Petersburg in Russia – none of these are the country's capital. Trade such as finance, electronics and manufactured goods. Asia is expected to contribute towards 60% of global growth by 2030.

LDEs (e.g. Sub-Saharan countries such as Rwanda and Ethiopia and Asian countries such as Vietnam, Bangladesh and the Philippines):

· Most new economic development is concentrated in the big cities through investment in low-cost manufacturing of textiles, garments and shoes. Push-pull factors lead to high rates of rural-to-urban migration. Cities are experiencing higher levels of natural increase in population.

In 1900 there were just 2 "millionaire" cities (London and Paris); by 2018 this had grown to 512. Due to modern transport and communication, urban areas are sprawling into rural regions to create conurbations, further adding to the growth of urban areas.

Examiner Tip: Note that urbanisation and urban growth are not the same. Urbanisation is about the concentration of people in urban areas through natural increase but also inward migration. Urban growth is the increase in total population and/or physical size of the town or city.

What are the characteristics of EMEs and LDEs?

The majority of the population live in rural areas

· Globalisation and development is rapidly changing the demographic

· Focus is on secondary (rapid industrialisation) and tertiary sectors - e.g. China's special enterprise zones

· Along with changes in agriculture within those countries

· Older cities are expanding, with new cities being formed

· Beijing, China saw its urban population grow from 4.4 million in 1970 to 21.8 million in 2021

· Africa is complex, as some countries are urbanising whilst also industrialising. Whereas others are urbanising because of their exports of primary goods

· EMEs and LDEs experience mass rural-to-urban migration, mainly of young males seeking to support their families in rural areas

· However, there is the growth of informal settlements, extreme poverty, gender inequality and exposure to violence and exploitation

· Many EMEs and LDEs are over-urbanising - where the rate of urbanisation exceeds the rate of economic development - this is leading to high unemployment and increased demand for resources, which in turn leads to high levels of tension between residents and also between residents and urban officials

What are the four main processes of urbanisation?

Urban populations change over time. There are four main processes that show a cycle:

1. Urbanisation

2. Suburbanisation

3. Counter-urbanisation

4. Urban regeneration or resurgence

What are urbanisation and suburbanisation?

Urbanisation begins as settlements agglomerate:

· People gather together in one area to sell goods and live

· Small trading posts and villages begin to develop

· Inward migration and natural increase adds to the growth

Urban space is limited, and outward growth is achieved through suburbanisation:

· People move from the urban centres to the fringes/outskirts of the city

· This adds to the built-up area, but the building densities are generally lower than in the older parts of the city

· These new suburbs consist mostly of houses, but also include places of employment and services

· There is a complex pattern of wealth and poverty, with wealthier middle-class people occupying particular areas of the suburbs and creating pockets of deprivation and segregation

What are commuting and counter-urbanisation?

Commuting: Urban settlements continue to prosper and grow, and people move further out to city fringes and commute to work:

· These are called dormitory settlements because many residents only sleep there. They continue to have links with the town or city they have left

· They still make use of urban services, shops, education, and healthcare

· Criticised for causing rural dilution, where traditional rural activities and sense of community are weakened or lost through people living there, but keeping their urban-based lifestyle

Counter-urbanisation: This is the movement of people from an urban area into the surrounding rural region.

· Counter-urbanisation leads to new housing estates being built in rural areas, but may push house prices beyond the reach of local people, which can change the age structure of the area

Causes include:

· Deindustrialisation - the closure of factories and industries leads to large areas of derelict land and buildings (brownfield sites), loss of jobs, poor services and a rise in crime and social unrest - the rise of 'urban blight'

· Mobility and accessibility: higher personal car ownership and an increase in public transport and road development making easier access to rural areas

· Increased wealth: making housing and travel more affordable

· Agricultural decline (mechanisation and merger of farms): more land becomes available for housing and agricultural workers leave the area

· Green belt: people need to go further out to get the rural life they are looking for

· Second homes and early retirement have increased the movement of people from the city to the countryside

· Some people just prefer the slower and quieter pace of rural life

What is re-urbanisation?

Also known as urban resurgence, it is the movement of people back into cities from the surrounding areas.

Movement is the result of a number of factors:

· Increase in jobs

· The 'lure' of the '24-hour city' to young, upwardly mobile people

· Regeneration of older areas, either through rebuilding or redevelopment (factories into spacious apartments)

· Improvements in air quality

· Improvements in safety

· Road access can be poor or congested and linked with a lack of accessible, cheap parking, it becomes a 'pull' factor to be nearer to work

· Commuter costs are less - use of public transport and time spent travelling

Examiner Tip: Do remember that urbanisation is a system; it has inputs, outputs, stores and transfers and is therefore an open system. Like all systems, urbanisation is a cycle.

· Input = agglomeration and process of urbanisation

· Output = urban blight

· Store = built area

· Transfer = movement of people to new area

· Input = suburbanisation

· Output = more travel time etc. etc.

Examiners like to see that you can apply the system thinking across all the courses and make the connections clear.

What is a megacity and how have they grown?

Not only is the world more urban, but the urban area is increasing. Many cities are sprawling into and engulfing rural regions to create conurbations, further adding to the growth of urban areas. As the growth of cities continues, the term megacity is used to describe cities with more than 10 million people.

· New York was the first megacity in 1950, with Tokyo 2nd

· In 1975 there were 4 - New York, Tokyo, Osaka and Mexico City

· By 2000 there were 15

· In 2018 that rose to 33 with Tokyo having close to 37.3 million people

· By 2025-2030, it is estimated that around 630 million people will live in close to 43 megacities around the world

· With Asia alone, having at least 33 megacities, including Mumbai and Delhi, India; Shanghai, China and Seoul, South Korea

This scaling up of the urban environment is the fastest in human history. Largest growth of megacities is seen in Asia.

What are the reasons for megacity growth?

Economic development:

· Megacities dominate national and regional economies of countries

· Many companies have their headquarters in megacities

· Encourages population growth which leads to the desirability of goods and services

· All megacities act as service centres within the formal economic sector

· However, megacities in EMEs are also important manufacturing centres (Mumbai in India or Dhaka in Bangladesh) with thousands working in the informal economy

Population growth:

· Young people are drawn to live in megacities with their vibrancy, fast pace and opportunities

· There is also 'internal growth' where people who have moved into the cities have children, so sustaining population growth (Mexico City, Mumbai, Pearl River Delta in China)

· Rapid growth, often means that peri-urban, grow more rapidly than urban centres and this can lead to development of slums

Economies of scale:

· Cheaper to provide goods and services in one place than spread across several cities

· Financial savings for local governments in respect of infrastructure provision

· Communication and transport are centralised, making savings in time and money

· Availability of skilled and unskilled workers (higher numbers allows for choice)

Multiplier effect:

· As a city prospers, it acts as a beacon to people and businesses

· This encourages inward investment

· This leads to yet more development and growth

· Generating further need for skills and labour and job growth

· This cycle multiplies the positive effects and growth continues (San Francisco and the digital development)

What are world cities and what role do they play?

World cities have a powerful attraction for people and businesses. They are influential cores with large peripheries and act as funnels for economic growth at various levels. World or global cities can be any size (they do not need to be megacities) but they exert particular influences around the globe. They are considered prestigious, with status and power, particularly as leaders of banking and finance.

World cities play an important role in global politics through hosting international summits, (COP 21, G8 etc.) where leaders use their influence to drive trade deals and develop economic links with other countries. They are critical hubs for the flow of wealth, trade, people and culture. Home to world-renown universities with centres of research and development, science and innovation.

The three top world cities are London, New York, and Tokyo. These are the financial centres of the world, each with smaller networks of world cities feeding into them. There are only four world cities in the southern hemisphere: Sydney, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires.

Alpha or top-tier cities are a select band of cities, e.g. London, New York, Tokyo etc. Due to their historic and continued influence, they are status points of global economic power. They are major hubs/nodes in the complex networks being produced through economic globalisation. Their influence is linked primarily to the provision of financial and producer services.

However, the status of cities are dynamic and new classifications are needed to show hierarchy within the global economic and political stage. These are graded the Alpha++, Alpha+, Alpha, Alpha- through to Gamma- etc. With only London and New York as Alpha++.

Outline the role that world cities play in the global economy. (4 marks)

World cities are those that have the greatest influence on a global scale. For example, London is an Alpha++ city due to it being a global financial centre. World cities play a critical role in the well-being of the world economy - only 100 cities accounting for 30% of the global economy. They have a disproportionate role in the global economy. World cities are 'hubs' through which wealth, trade, people and culture flow. They serve not only the country/region in which they are based but the rest of the world. World cities are seen as centres of innovation, which in turn attracts even more companies and migration of people. They are seen as centres of learning, where ideas are shared through universities and science parks. World cities are also important in the role of global politics. They host international summits such as G8 where leaders use their influence to drive trade deals and develop economic links with other countries.

What economic and social processes are associated with urbanisation and urban growth?

Economic: Urban economic growth is focused around ports and urban cores, and are called growth poles. This encourages inward movement of people for jobs and better wages. As new workers earn, they spend – creating demand for additional companies. The increased need for services such as infrastructure, housing, sanitation etc. creates jobs. Businesses benefit from wider employment pool, generating larger profits, leading to increased jobs and wage increases – positive multiplier effect. Primary sector economy changes from subsistence to commercial production, reducing available jobs and wages. This acts as a 'push' towards urban areas.

Social: Higher wages, access to healthcare and a better lifestyle are pull factors and as more people move to urban areas they can become centres of cultural expression such as art galleries, museums and food. Increase in social diversity and cultures creates tolerance and understanding, however, it can also generate fear and intolerance along with segregation. Social inequalities are amplified in urban areas with pockets of deprivation and exclusivity clearly evident with gated communities and ghettos juxtaposed in some cities (e.g. Sao Paulo and Los Angeles).

What technological, political and demographic processes are associated with urbanisation and urban growth?

Technological: Most HDEs urban areas are hotspots for technological advances due to past industrialisation – Manchester was known as 'Cottonopolis' and was the world leader in cotton processing. Nowadays, these areas specialise in hi-tech research and development and use science parks such as Silicon Valley, California, and Thames Valley, Oxford to further attract talent and specialised employees. EMEs are also seeing this growth with increases in factories in cities such as Mumbai, Dhaka and Shanghai.

Political: With increases in urban growth, inequalities are amplified with new a category of 'working' people arising. Political response emerges to represent this new class of urban population with political reform focusing on issues surrounding the affect on urban life - housing, education, access to healthcare, working conditions and exploitation.

Demographic: Inward migration (internal and international) increases as a city's influence grows, changing the demography of its population. Urban areas become culturally and ethnically diverse creating a mosaic of different areas - Little Italy, Chinatown etc. Age structure changes as cities are seen as never sleeping and ever changing, therefore, cities have a younger population as they seek the excitement and bright lights. Many choose to stay and raise families and this also keeps urban areas as youthful populations.

What are urban pull factors and the positive multiplier effect?

Urban pull factors include:

· Higher wages

· Pace and excitement

· Improved education and healthcare

· Better job opportunities

· Public utilities: water, gas, electricity, etc.

· Government support

The positive multiplier effect: Growth continues and settlement and economy expand → Demand for more workers, etc. → Workers needed to build and provide these → Need houses, water, services → Growth of industry → People move there → Need workforce → Shops open, more services needed → Need food.

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How has urban change occurred over time? (Deindustrialisation)

Urbanisation is part of a sequence of processes that may also involve the processes of suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation. This sequence has occurred in many HDEs, including the UK and Germany, over the last 50 years. Changes occur as urban environments age and the needs of people change. These changes include:

· Deindustrialisation - flight of industry and foreign competition

· Rise in the service economy - improvement in education and training

· Decentralisation - competition of land space

Prior to industrialisation, the majority of people lived and worked within rural areas and cities were small with few opportunities. With industrialisation, cities needed more workers. As more moved to the cities - there was a demand for low cost houses for the workers. This resulted in high-density cheap housing (fitting as many houses as possible in a small area). People had to live close to work due to lack of transport. This saw a rise in small corner shops and local facilities.

During the early 20th century, cities first started to see a decline as businesses and the more affluent, skilled and educated work force moved away to the new growth of suburbs. This left behind empty buildings and housing occupied by those who couldn't afford to move. Initially after WWII, a period of growth began again and cities became centres of redevelopment. However, during the 1960s there came competition from foreign developing economies (Singapore and Taiwan), who were producing goods at a cheaper rate. By the 1970s, HDEs were struggling to compete with foreign made goods and industries began closing and moving overseas or collapsed entirely - Sheffield saw the loss of its steel production which led to mass unemployment and poverty. Factories were abandoned and large areas laid to waste and became dumping ground, leading to a large stock of brownfield sites. Deindustrialisation impacted heavily on cities and unemployment rose above 3 million in the UK in 1983, the highest rate of unemployment since WWII. The losses of jobs and poor services, led to social unrest and a rise in crime for those left behind - a period of 'urban blight' set in.

What was the rise of the service industry?

With deindustrialisation and high unemployment, the government began a new training programme to re-train people in the rise of technology and changes in finance and retail industries. From the 1980s onwards, the retail and banking industry, along with higher wages and disposable income, expanded and became the dominant western economy. This was the rise of globalisation, and HDEs were well placed to take advantage over LDEs and EMEs through their past knowledge of industrial processes.

There began the growth in corporate (multinational) headquarters, along with the rise of the knowledge economy to meet the needs of other businesses. Research and development rose to meet the demands of the expanding population and subsequent rise and understanding of technology - hospitals, schools, universities etc. Property development was needed to meet the needs of 'new' businesses and housing for the rise of 'high-flyer' employees and executives. Better pay, cheaper goods and more 'time-off' led to the increase in the demand for leisure services and tourism.

Core urban areas attract large multinational companies, and need to be serviced but also attract retail industry. Consumer services are located near affluent suburban populations with good transport access but also attracting a different workforce. Research and development facilities are located at the urban fringe for space, access and locations near to universities. However, the overall urban employment rate remains high (a certain level of education and skill is needed to secure employment). Well paid managerial jobs are few and fiercely protected. There is a high turn over of low paid and temporary jobs.

What is decentralisation?

During the industrial revolution, industry tended to be located within the inner cities. However, as cities have grown, access to these areas have declined - workers, raw material and distribution of finished goods. There is also the change in manufacturing practices and type - woollen mills, steel, paper etc. Inner city locations lacked expansion space or opportunities to reorganise. Old industrial sites were often polluted, costly to clean up and a general public health hazard. Retailing and commercial sectors were demanding land in a more central position.

This has led to a cross-over between decentralisation and the rise of the service economy:

· More people have access to cars and this has led to new developments

· Suburban CBDs - as urban areas grew, people found themselves further away from CBDs, so suburban retail and commercial centres expanded

· Retail parks are sited along ring roads and major intersections

· Urban superstores and hypermarkets - along points of high access and consumer demand, led by large corporations - Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury's etc.

· Out of town shopping centres - providing one-stop shopping, eating and leisure facilities

· Internet shopping and home delivery - this is changing the face of the urban area and traditional shopping habits

Peripheral locations are becoming more popular as they offer advantages, including niche markets, parking, accessibility and sometimes cheaper land prices. Changes in service locations - this includes hospitals, sport complexes, golf courses, schools, colleges and university campuses. Cheaper land, availability of space and potential for expansion, good access for transport and infrastructure. Pleasant working environment - less pollution and time spent accessing the services.

Where the services have expanded, this has had a knock-on effect within the inner city regions. With average or lower than average salaries, some key-workers have found themselves in inner city locations where they cannot afford to live - nurses, teachers, paramedics, police and fire officers. This has led to further decline in the inner city areas.

What was Britain's urban regeneration like prior to 1979 and from 1979-1990s?

Over the last 50 years, successive governments have continued to implement change, promote growth and development within the UKs urban areas.

Prior to 1979:

· One major design fault was the lack of open recreational spaces, the use of high density, high-rise flats and apartments during the redevelopment in the 60's

· Once again, wealthier people left the inner city, leaving behind pensioners, one-parent families, students and ethnic minorities

· Over time, housing was allowed to deteriorate, and as people moved out, boarded-up buildings became common

· These attracted squatters, drug users and petty criminals

· Terms such as 'urban blight' were used to describe urban areas with derelict factories and run-down housing

· Tower blocks were eventually demolished

· By the end of the 1970s, inner city areas were suffering from: Industrial decline; High unemployment; Abandoned warehouses - eyesores and attracted vandalism; High crime rates; Poor quality housing; Overcrowding; Lack of open spaces; Lack of parking spaces; Atmospheric pollution; Heavy traffic

1979-1990s:

· The UK government finally took a serious look at urban decline and initiated a project called Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) to bring urban decay to a halt

· As well as bringing brownfield sites back into use, to improve housing conditions, it wanted to improve local prospects by offering training for employment to be provided by private investment

· This would hopefully lead to a reduction in unemployment, crime and antisocial behaviour

· Renewed economic activity was expected to lead to better living conditions in a better environment

· Many different schemes and task forces have been used to try to bring about these improvements, but overall housing, educational and employment prospects and health are below the national averages

· Problems in housing, education, employment, antisocial behaviour and crime are not confined to inner city areas

· If anything, they are greater on council estates, many of which were built on Greenfield sites in the 20 years after World War II

What was Britain's urban regeneration like from 1981-present?

1981-present:

· Enterprise Zones (EZs) were established in areas of high unemployment, with the hope of attracting companies to the area to boost the local economy by employing the local workforce

· The government provided incentives, such as reducing corporation and land taxes, reduced rents and cheaper power supplies

· By the end of the 1990s, EZs employed more than 125,000 people over 5000 companies

· But, the incentives did encourage existing companies to move their staff and premises to EZs, effectively limiting the creating of new jobs

1991-1997:

· Local authorities had the opportunity to complete for government funding to regenerate their deprived areas in a scheme called the City Challenge

· Working with local communities and private companies, improvements were made to the economic, social and physical environment of the area

· Funding was allocated directly to local communities to improve housing, education and training, allowing people to access jobs and better healthcare

· By the end, over 50,000 jobs were created and 40,000 homes improved, but unfortunately many deprived areas missed out on funding

2010 to present:

· In partnership with private companies, the government has provided financial support and expertise for urban regeneration and renewal

· Called the Partnership Schemes, its aims are similar to the City Challenge, with the improvements to economic, social and physical environment of deprived areas

· Liverpool City Region Local Enterprise Partnership (2012) has increased business activity, created new jobs, provided parks, new affordable homes, regenerated Albert Docks and built new sports and leisure centres