IB Psychology: Cognitive Biases, Conditioning, Models, and Memory Systems

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering cognitive biases, classical and operant conditioning, the dual process model, neuroplasticity and localization, neurotransmission, schema theory, social learning theory, memory models, and methodological/ethical concepts in psychology.

Cognitive Biases

Irrational systematic errors in human decision-making and thinking, studied extensively in psychology and behavioral economics.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts utilized in System 1 thinking to solve complex problems quickly by focusing on a single aspect, prone to errors due to lack of deliberate effort.

Anchoring Bias

The cognitive tendency to rely disproportionately on the initial piece of information presented (the 'anchor') when making subsequent numerical estimates or evaluations.

The Decoy Effect

A choice architecture strategy where a third, asymmetric option is introduced to shift consumer preference toward a specific target item using anchoring bias.

Confirmation Bias

The cognitive tendency to seek out, interpret, and favor information that validates pre-existing beliefs while discounting or dismissing contradicting evidence to protect one's ego.

Selective Exposure

A mechanism of confirmation bias where individuals deliberately seek out environmental information that aligns with their beliefs and avoid contrary perspectives.

Selective Perception

A perceptual process where incoming stimuli are actively interpreted through the filter of pre-existing expectations and beliefs.

Selective Retention

A memory bias where individuals remember information consistent with their pre-existing values and interests while forgetting inconsistent material.

Classical Conditioning

A passive, associative learning process where an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits an involuntary conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A biological stimulus that reflexively and naturally triggers an unlearned physiological response without prior training.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An automatic, unlearned physiological reflex elicited in direct response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

An environmental stimulus that initially elicits no specific target response prior to classical conditioning pairings.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, following repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned, reflexive reaction triggered by a conditioned stimulus following classical conditioning.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for stimuli physically similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a similar conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other non-reinforced stimuli, responding exclusively to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction (Conditioning)

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response following a period of rest without any intervening training trials.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A classical conditioning process in which an established conditioned stimulus functions as an unconditioned stimulus to condition a new neutral stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A form of instrumental learning where voluntary behavior is modified through consequences, specifically reinforcement and punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of an appetitive stimulus following a target behavior that increases the probability of that behavior reoccurring.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus following a target behavior that increases the probability of that behavior reoccurring.

Positive Punishment

The delivery of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a desirable or appetitive stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Behaviour Shaping

An operant procedure that teaches complex target behaviors by selectively reinforcing successive approximations toward the final desired response.

Token Economy Programme (TEP)

A systematic behavior modification system where participants earn secondary reinforcers (tokens) for target behaviors, redeemable for back-up primary rewards.

Dual Process Model

A cognitive framework positing that human thinking and decision-making rely on two distinct operating systems: fast, intuitive System 1 and slow, analytical System 2.

System 1 Thinking

A fast, automatic, effortless, and subconscious mode of processing driven by emotion, intuition, and heuristics.

System 2 Thinking

A slow, deliberate, effortful, and conscious mode of cognitive processing governed by formal logic, analytical evaluation, and working memory rules.

Cognitive Model

A conceptual framework, flowchart, or diagram mapping unobservable mental processes by treating the human mind as an information-processing system.

Reification Fallacy

The error of treating an abstract theoretical construct or cognitive flowchart as if it were a physical, tangible anatomical brain structure.

Localisation of Function

The theory that specific psychological functions, behaviors, and cognitive processes are linked directly to discrete anatomical areas of the brain.

Distributive Processing

The theory that behaviors and cognitive operations arise from coordinated interactions across widespread neural networks rather than isolated loci.

Equipotentiality

The capacity of undamaged cortical regions to take over functional control and memory processing from damaged portions of the brain.

Neuroplasticity

The structural and functional capacity of neural networks to alter and reorganize in response to environmental stimulation, learning, or injury.

Cortical Remapping

A specific manifestation of neuroplasticity wherein the brain reorganizes functional maps and pathways following training or sensory deprivation.

Neurogenesis

The biological process responsible for the formation and development of new neurons in the brain.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

The sustained strengthening of synaptic transmission resulting from repeated high-frequency firing, summarized by the rule that neurons that fire together, wire together.

Neural Pruning

The developmental elimination of excess or unused synaptic connections to optimize the efficiency of remaining neural networks.

Dendritic Branching

The physical proliferation of new branches on neuronal dendrites that enhances reception of electrochemical inputs for transmission along the axon.

Action Potential

An electrical impulse propagating down the axon to the terminal buttons following neuronal polarization.

Synapse

The microscopic cleft separating the terminal buttons of a presynaptic neuron from the dendrites or cell body of a postsynaptic neuron.

Re-uptake

The reabsorption of released neurotransmitter molecules from the synaptic gap back into the presynaptic terminal buttons.

Bidirectional Ambiguity

A methodological limitation in correlational research where it is impossible to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

Schema

A mental framework or organized packet of stored knowledge built from past experience that organizes categories of information and guides cognition.

Script

A culturally shaped event schema that outlines expected, routine sequences of behavior in specific environmental settings.

Priming

The cognitive effect where prior exposure to a stimulus subconsciously activates an associated schema, shaping subsequent behavior and interpretation.

Disequilibrium

An uncomfortable state of cognitive imbalance occurring when novel sensory input conflicts with or cannot be explained by existing schemas.

Assimilation

The cognitive integration of new experiences into pre-existing schemas without modifying the underlying structural framework.

Accommodation

The cognitive modification of existing schemas or the formulation of new ones when confronted with discrepant information.

Serial Reproduction

A reconstructive memory method where one participant recalls material to a second, who recounts it to a third in a sequential chain.

Rationalization (Bartlett)

A reconstructive memory alteration in which unfamiliar, supernatural, or culturally foreign details are reshaped to conform to one's own cultural schema.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

The view that behavior is acquired through the observation and cognitive modeling of others without requiring direct conditioning.

Vicarious Reinforcement

An increase in an observer's likelihood of imitating a behavior after witnessing a role model receive positive reinforcement for that behavior.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's personal belief in their capability to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance achievements.

ARRM Mediational Processes

The four cognitive stages required for observational learning in Social Learning Theory: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation.

Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)

Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) model mapping memory architecture into three sequential stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

A modality-specific memory store holding raw sensory input with high capacity but ultra-brief duration ($< 2\text{ s}$) before rapid decay.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

An active conscious workspace with an acoustic encoding bias, limited capacity ($7 \pm 2$ chunks), and short duration ($18\text{--}30\text{ s}$).

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A permanent memory store with potentially unlimited capacity, lifetime duration, and primarily semantic encoding.

Serial Position Effect

The empirical finding that retrieval probability for items in a list is highest for early items (primacy) and late items (recency) compared to middle items.

Primacy Effect

Enhanced recall of the earliest items in a list due to extended maintenance rehearsal facilitating successful transfer into long-term memory.

Recency Effect

Enhanced recall of the final items in a list because they remain active within short-term memory at the point of testing.

Patient HM

A famous neuropsychological case study who suffered dense anterograde amnesia following bilateral medial temporal lobe resection, evidencing distinct memory stores.

Semantic Memory

A declarative, explicit memory subsystem that stores generic world knowledge, language rules, and facts detached from personal temporal contexts.

Episodic Memory

A declarative, explicit memory subsystem that retains autobiographical, personally experienced events tagged to specific times and locations.

Procedural Memory

An implicit, non-declarative memory system that stores motor skills, physical habits, and behavioral routines executed without conscious recall.

Perceptual Memory

The memory capacity dedicated to recognizing and storing complex sensory patterns, crucial for recognizing voices, objects, and faces.

Engram

The hypothetical localized biological trace or physical location in brain tissue representing a stored memory.

Precuneus

A parietal lobe region that activates during the vivid mental reliving and conscious retrieval of autobiographical memories.

Construct Validity

The degree to which an operationalized measurement tool or experimental design genuinely captures the theoretical psychological construct under investigation.

Ecological Validity

The extent to which research methods, tasks, and findings generalize accurately to real-world naturalistic contexts.

Socially Sensitive Research

Studies involving topics that carry substantial potential stigma, ethical complications, or negative consequences for participants or marginalized societal groups.

Duty of Care

The legal and professional obligation of psychological researchers and clinicians to provide scientifically supported, protective, and ethical care.

Informed Consent

The fundamental ethical standard requiring researchers to fully outline study procedures, risks, and benefits prior to obtaining voluntary agreement.