PSYCH 1000 - Exam 3

developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social development throughout the life span.

cross-sectional studies

Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal studies

Research that follows and retests the same people over time.

zygote

The fertilized egg that enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features.

habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation

Adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Asserts that there are discontinuous aspects of development that children proceed through in distinct hierarchical stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Saw children as constructing knowledge for themselves through active engagement with the world and learning through their own experiences.

sensorimotor stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

centration

In Piaget’s theory, the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event when reasoning or problem-solving.

concrete operational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of obects.

formal operational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (usually beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development

Focuses on the contribution of other people and the surrounding culture to children’s development, especially their ability to think and behave at a higher level than they could manage on their own with the help of others.

scaffold

In Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support at they develop higher levels of thinking.

theory of mind

People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states, such as their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces typical development.

imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

basic trust

According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

synaptic pruning

The “use it or lose it” elimination of synapses during development to enhance neural efficiency.

guided participation

In Vygotsky’s theory, social activities between a child and a more knowledgeable individual.

zone of proximal development

The difference between what a learner can do without help vs. what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations.

mood

Diffuse, longer-lasting states that have less identifiable objects or triggers.

basic emotions

Sadness, fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and surprise. These emotions had adaptive value and were shaped by evolution. They are recognized in all cultures and have universal facial and behavioral expressions.

display rules

Sociocultural norms about when, where, and how one should display emotion.

constructed emotions

The view that emotions are constructed as a function of valence (positive vs. negative), arousal (low to high), and appraisal (situational interpretation).

James-Lange theory

The theory that our experience of emotion occurs when we become aware of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus.

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously and independently triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.

Schacter-Singer two-factor theory

The theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal.

facial feedback effect

The tendency of facial muscle activation alone to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

behavior feedback effect

The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.

happiness

An enduring state of well-being that reflects positive emotional patterns and overall satisfaction with life.

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

Our tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.

positive psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. The pillars are positive well-being, positive traits, and positive groups, communities, and cultures.

subjective well-being

Self-reported satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being to judge our quality of life.

relative deprivation

The perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves.

resilience

The personal strength that helps people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.

adaptation-level phenomenon

Our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, lights, income, etc.) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

stress

The process by which we perceive and response to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

types of stressors

1. Catastrophes (large-scale disasters)

2. Significant life changes

3. Daily hassles and social stress

approach and avoidance motives

The drive to move forward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus.

fight-or-flight response

An emergency response, including activation of the sympathetic nervous system, that mobilizes energy and activity for attacking or escaping a threat.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

tend-and-befriend response

Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

health psychology

A subfield of psychology that contributes to behavioral medicine.

psychoneuroimmunology

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect our immune system and resulting health.

coronary heart disease

The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; a leading cause of death in many developed countries.

type A

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

type B

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.

coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

emotion-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

personal control

Our senses of being in charge of our environment rather than feeling helpless.

learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated averse events.

learned optimism

Hopeful thinking that interprets setbacks as temporary and controllable, rather than permanent and pervasive.

external locus of control

The perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

internal locus of control

The perception that we control our own fate.

self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

emotion regulation

How we manage our emotions, including which emotions we allow ourselves to feel, when we feel them, and how we express those emotions.

aerobic exercise

Sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety.