2.1-2.4 Study Guide

Bottom-Up Processing

Starts with raw sensory information and builds up to brain's interpretation.

Top-Down Processing

Starts with brain's expectations to interpret incoming stimuli.

Closure (Gestalt Principle)

Filling in missing gaps to perceive a complete object.

Figure and Ground (Gestalt Principle)

Segregating an object from its surrounding environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

Tuning out background noise but noticing personally significant information.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice a visual change in the environment.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that require both eyes for perception.

Retinal Disparity

The difference between visual images projected onto each retina.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues that require only one eye, visible in 2D images.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving an object as unchanging despite changes in the retinal image.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

The best or most ideal example representing a concept.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to solve problems quickly, but prone to errors.

Mental Set

Sticking to a problem-solving strategy that has worked in the past.

Priming

Earlier exposure to a stimulus influencing later thoughts or behavior.

Framing

The way information is presented affects how it is perceived.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing an endeavor due to previously invested resources.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes allowing planning, attention, and organization.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple creative solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down options to find the best solution.

Explicit Memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled and described.

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal life events.

Semantic Memory

Memory for general facts and knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Memory that is not easy to verbalize; includes skills and habits.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections based on frequent activity.

Central Executive (in Working Memory)

Directs focus and coordinates sub-systems of working memory.

Phonological Loop

Handles verbal and auditory information in working memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Handles visual and spatial information in working memory.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Model describing memory stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory.

Method of Loci

Using spatial locations to enhance memory recall.

Chunking

Grouping data into larger, meaningful units for easier recall.

Spacing Effect

Superior retention and recall from distributed practice over cramming.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome measure in an experiment.

Random Assignment

Distributing participants into groups by chance to ensure comparability.