Metacognition, Learning Theories, and Motivation

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering metacognitive strategies, categorization theories, stages of mastery, problem-solving heuristics, constructivist perspectives, and theories of motivation and affect.

Metacognition

The deliberate conscious control of your mental activities that allows you to manage your own learning.

Declarative Knowledge

Knowledge regarding facts, such as knowing there is a quiz on a specific day.

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge regarding how to perform a task, such as using the SQ3R method.

Conditional Knowledge

Knowledge regarding when and why to use a specific strategy.

Learner Variables

Traits about the individual, such as age and prior knowledge, that determine how well they monitor learning.

Task Variables

Traits about the work being done, such as difficulty, length, and familiarity.

Strategy Variables

The specific tools selected for learning, such as note-taking, rehearsal, or self-testing.

Epistemic Thinking (Theory of Mind)

A developmental milestone reached between ages $5-7$ where a child realizes minds exist and people can have different beliefs.

Reciprocal Teaching

A dialogue where teacher and students use four specific moves: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting.

Concept

A mental category used to avoid having to relearn objects every time a new instance is encountered.

Critical Attributes

The "must-have" features of a concept, such as a triangle needing three sides.

Variable Attributes

Features of a concept that can change without altering the category, such as the color of a triangle.

Feature Analysis

A theory of categorization that involves using a mental checklist of critical attributes.

Prototype Theory

Categorizing an item by comparing it to the "best example" of that category.

Exemplar Theory

Categorizing an item by comparing it to every specific instance of that category previously encountered.

Concrete Stage (Klausmeier)

The first stage of concept mastery where an object is recognized only if it is identical to one seen before.

Identity Stage (Klausmeier)

The second stage of concept mastery where an object is recognized from a different angle or distance.

Classification Stage (Klausmeier)

The third stage of concept mastery where different items, like a Poodle and a Husky, are grouped into one category like "Dog."

Formal Stage (Klausmeier)

The final stage of concept mastery where an individual can define the concept and list its attributes.

Conceptual Change

The process of fixing a misconception, which requires being dissatisfied with the old idea and finding the new idea Plausible, Intelligible, and Fruitful.

Problem

A gap between a Current State and a Goal State with no automatic way to cross it.

Steps of Insight (Wallas)

A four-step model for problem-solving consisting of Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification.

Generate-and-Test

A heuristic strategy involving guessing and testing

Means-Ends Analysis

A strategy of creating subgoals to reduce the distance between the current state and the final goal.

Functional Fixedness

A barrier to problem-solving where an individual only sees an object for its usual or intended use.

Mental Set

Getting stuck using a previously successful solution that does not fit a new problem.

Inductive Reasoning

Creating a general rule based on specific observations.

Deductive Reasoning

Applying a general rule to a specific case.

Exogenous Constructivism

The perspective that knowledge is a reconstruction of the external world through models or teaching.

Endogenous Constructivism

The perspective that knowledge develops from internal cognitive abstraction where old knowledge builds new knowledge.

Dialectical Constructivism

The perspective that knowledge results from the interaction between persons and their environment.

Equilibration

The mental drive to make internal thoughts match the external world.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing mental folder or Schema.

Accommodation

Changing an existing mental folder or creating a new one because new information does not fit.

Enactive Representation

Learning through movement or muscle memory, such as riding a bike.

Iconic Representation

Learning through mental pictures, images, or summaries.

Symbolic Representation

Learning through systems such as language, words, or mathematics.

Spiral Curriculum

An educational method where the same concepts are revisited periodically with increasing complexity.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a student can do alone and what they can do with help.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a teacher that is withdrawn as the student improves.

Private Speech

Self-directed talk used by children to guide behavior, which eventually becomes internalized as silent thought.

Drive Theory

The theory that behavior is pushed by the need to satisfy physiological needs to reach Homeostasis.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological tension occurring when beliefs and behaviors do not match.

Expectancy-Value Theory

A motivation model defined by the equation:

Ts​=Ms​×Ps​×Is​ (Tendency to Achieve Success)

Taf​=Maf​×Pf​×(−If​) (Tendency to Avoid Failure)

Ta​=Ms​−Taf​ (Resultant Achievement Motivation)

Self-Handicapping

A strategy where students protect their "sense of ability" by creating excuses for potential failure, such as not studying.

Locus of Control

The belief regarding whether outcomes are under internal control or due to external factors like luck.

Self-Determination Theory

A theory stating that intrinsic motivation requires three components: Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness.

Overjustification Hypothesis

The phenomenon where providing an external reward for an activity a student already enjoys can decrease their intrinsic interest.

Personal Interest

A stable, long-term trait of an individual regarding their liking of an activity.

Situational Interest

A temporary spark of interest caused by a specific task or environment.

Moods

Long-lasting, low-intensity emotional states that typically lack a single clear cause.

Emotions

Short-lived, intense reactions to specific events, such as pride or anxiety.

Student Perspectives

Teachers value how a student reached an answer, not just if it's correct.

Task vs. Ego Involvement

1. focuses on getting better (effort builds ability)

2. focuses on looking smart compared to others (ability is fixed).

Model of Motivated Learning

• Pretask Phase: Motivation is shaped by initial goals, self-efficacy, and social support.

• During Task Phase: Personal, instructional (feedback), and contextual variables interact to influence persistence.

• Posttask Phase: Reflection and attributions about performance shape future motivation.

Integrated Assessment

Assessment happens during learning (formative) to guide next steps, rather than just at the end (summative).

Conditioning Theory (Motivation)

Motivation is a history of reinforcements. (Critique: It ignores thoughts and expectations).

Balance Theory (Heider)

We want our relationships and beliefs to align. If I like a person but they hate my favorite hobby, there is "imbalance" and tension.

Modern Model (Eccles & Wigfield)

• Cultural Milieu: How gender roles and cultural stereotypes influence a child.

• Socializer's Beliefs: How the expectations of parents and teachers shape the child's own self-concept.

• Subjective Task Value: Broken down into Interest, Importance/Utility, and Cost (what you have to give up to do the task).

Maslow’s Motivation Humanistic Theory

Basic needs (safety, food) must be met before a student can focus on Self-Actualization(growth).

Rogers’ Actualizing Tendency Humanistic Theory

An innate drive toward growth. He emphasized Unconditional Positive Regard—feeling valued regardless of performance—to prevent "conditions of worth" that hinder development.

Discovery Learning Constructivist Instructional Approach

Students construct hypotheses and test them. Guided Discovery (with teacher scaffolding) is more effective than "pure" discovery, which can overwhelm novices.

Inquiry Teaching Constructivist Instructional Approach

Uses Socratic questioning to lead students to realize logic for themselves.

Peer-Assisted Learning Constructivist Instructional Approach

Includes Peer Tutoring (one-on-one) and Cooperative Learning (team effort). These work best when there is "group accountability" and clear goals.

Constructivist Assumption: Working Hypothesis

Constructivists view knowledge as a “working hypothesis” rather than an absolute, unchanging truth

Constructivist Assumption: Situated Cognition

Thinking is “situated” in physical and social contexts; it doesn't just happen in a vacuum in your mind

Creativity (Problem Solving)

Idea must be novel and appropriate/valuable (it actually works or makes sense).

Big C vs. little c

world-changing vs. everyday problem-solving

CPS Model

Understanding the Challenge → Generating Ideas → Preparing for Action.

Katona (Problem Solving)

Proved that learning a Rule is superior to Rote memorization because rules are easier to remember and transfer to new problems.

Thorndike

Trial and Error

How to teach concepts: Tennyson & Cocchiarella

1. Define the concept: Give the name and the “must-have” rules

2. Provide Examples: Show clear versions of the concept

3. Provide Non-examples: this is crucial. To understand “fruit” you need to know why a “carrot” is not a fruit

4. Sequence: Start with easy, obvious examples and more to difficult ones

Foundations of Educational Psychology

• Engage with information and construct knowledge.

• Develop skills and sustain motivation.

• Interact with others in learning environments.

Three Criteria for Learning.

1. Learning involves change.

2. Learning endures over time.

3. Learning occurs through experience.

Connectionism (Thorndike)

• Trial-and-Error: Learning occurs incrementally as successful responses are "stamped in."

• Law of Effect: Responses followed by a reward are strengthened; those followed by punishment are weakened (though Thorndike later found punishment was ineffective).

• Transfer of Learning: Occurs only when two situations have identical elements.

Epistemology: Where does knowledge come from?

• Rationalism (Plato, Descartes): Knowledge comes primarily from reason and thinking. The mind is active and naturally seeks to make sense of the world.

• Empiricism (Aristotle, Locke): Experience is the only source of knowledge. The mind starts as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) and forms associations based on sensory input.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov & Watson)

• The Process: Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) → Unconditioned Response (Drool). Pair Food with a Bell (Conditioned Stimulus) → Bell alone causes Drool.

• Generalization: Fearing all white furry things because of one bad experience with a white rat (Little Albert).

• Systematic Desensitization: A strategy to "unlearn" fears by pairing relaxation with a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking images.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• The Three-Term Contingency: Antecedent (the cue) → Behavior (the response) → Consequence (the result).

• Reinforcement (Increases Behavior):

  • Positive: Adding something good (a sticker for a clean desk).

  • Negative: Taking away something bad (no homework if you participate in class).

• Punishment (Decreases Behavior): Adding something unpleasant or removing a privilege. Skinner argued punishment only suppresses behavior; it doesn't teach a better one.

• Shaping: Reinforcing "successive approximations" toward a final goal (e.g., praising a child for holding a pencil, then for a line, then for a letter).

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)

: learning occurs in a social environment and involves internal mental representations.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

We learn by watching others. This involves four processes:

1. Attention: Noticing the model.

2. Retention: Mentally coding and storing the behavior.

3. Production: Physically performing the behavior (requires practice/feedback).

4. Motivation: Wanting to perform it based on expected outcomes.

Self-Efficacy (Bandura)

This is your belief in your capability to perform a specific task.

• High Self-Efficacy: Leads to more effort, more persistence, and better performance.

• Sources of Efficacy: Mastery experiences (past success), Vicarious experiences (seeing others succeed), Verbal persuasion (encouragement), and Emotional states (feeling calm vs. anxious).

Goals and Expectations

To be effective, goals should be Specific (read 10 pages), Proximal (short-term), and Difficult but Attainable.

• Outcome Expectations: Beliefs about the consequences of an action ("If I study, I will get an A").

Information Processing Theory

:focusing on how we attend to, encode, store, and retrieve info.

Memory Models

• Dual-Store Model: Information moves from Sensory Register → Short-Term/Working Memory → Long-Term Memory.

• Levels of Processing: We remember things better if we process them "deeply" (linking to meaning) rather than "shallowly" (just repeating a sound).

Premack Principle

The opportunity to engage in a more valued activity reinforces engaging in a less valued activity (e.g., "Finish your math, then you can go to recess").