Introduction to Biopsychology, Neurons & Neural Communication

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering the concepts, anatomical structures, neural communication processes, neurotransmitters, historical foundations, and current trends in biopsychology.

According to Kirby et al. (2024), what is the definition of biopsychology?

Biopsychology is the study of how the brain, nervous system, and other biological processes influence behaviour and mental processes, including thoughts and emotions.

Which major lobes of the cerebral cortex and brain structures are shown in this diagram?

The frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and brainstem.

Based on this anatomical overview, what are the two main divisions of the human nervous system and their primary components?

The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, consisting of branching nerves throughout the body.

How does the hypothalamus influence food-seeking behaviour?

The hypothalamus helps regulate hunger and energy balance, thereby influencing food-seeking behaviour.

What are the five main reasons biopsychology is important to psychologists?

It helps psychologists understand biological influences on behaviour, investigate neurological conditions, inform psychological and neuroscience research, investigate cognition and emotion, and contribute to health-related research and interventions.

What key anatomical structures of a neuron are identified in this diagram?

Dendrites, nucleus, cell body (soma), axon, myelin sheath, Schwann cell, node of Ranvier, axon terminal, and synapses.

What are the primary functions of dendrites and the cell body (soma)?

Dendrites receive incoming signals from other cells. The cell body (soma) maintains the neuron, contains the nucleus, and integrates incoming signals that influence whether an action potential is generated.

What are the functions of the axon, axon terminals, and myelin sheath?

The axon carries electrical signals (action potentials) away from the cell body. Axon terminals release neurotransmitters to communicate with another cell. The myelin sheath insulates the axon and helps electrical signals travel faster (Clark et al., 2018).

Where is an action potential typically initiated in a neuron?

It is usually initiated near the axon hillock, specifically at the axon initial segment, when combined inputs bring the neuron to threshold.

What are the nodes of Ranvier and how do they facilitate saltatory conduction?

They are gaps between myelin sheath segments on myelinated axons that allow action potentials to be regenerated at intervals, enabling faster electrical transmission.

What is the difference between Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes?

Schwann cells produce and maintain myelin around axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), whereas oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the central nervous system (CNS).

Which three functional classes of neurons are illustrated in this diagram?

Sensory neuron, motor neuron, and interneuron.

What are the primary functions of sensory neurons and motor neurons?

Sensory neurons carry information from sensory receptors towards the central nervous system (CNS). Motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to muscles, causing them to contract when appropriately activated.

What is the role of interneurons in a typical withdrawal reflex?

Interneurons in the spinal cord help relay and process information between sensory and motor neurons to coordinate a rapid response.

According to this integration diagram, what is the path of neural signals in a simple reflex arc?

Sensory receptors detect a stimulus, transmitting impulses through a sensory neuron to an interneuron, which relays the signal to a motor neuron that activates the effector (muscle).

What is the sequential route an impulse follows through and between communicating neurons?

Dendrite $\rightarrow$ cell body $\rightarrow$ axon $\rightarrow$ axon terminal $\rightarrow$ neurotransmitter $\rightarrow$ synaptic gap $\rightarrow$ receptor $\rightarrow$ next neuron.

What sequence of events at a chemical synapse is depicted in this diagram?

An electrical nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, stimulating the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap, which diffuse across and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

How do electrical and chemical signalling operate together in typical neural communication?

Electrical signalling involves action potentials travelling along the axon within a neuron, while chemical signalling involves neurotransmitters diffusing across the synaptic cleft to communicate between neurons at chemical synapses.

In biopsychology, how are 'threshold' and 'action potential' defined?

Threshold is the level of electrical change a neuron must reach for an action potential to be initiated. An action potential is a brief electrical event that travels along the axon.

Define the terms 'synapse', 'receptor', and 'synaptic cleft'.

A synapse is the junction where one neuron communicates with another cell. A receptor is a specialised protein that detects a compatible chemical messenger. The synaptic cleft is the small gap between the sending cell and receiving cell at a chemical synapse.

What are the chronological steps that occur when accidentally touching a hot pan?

1. Heat stimulates receptors in the skin. 2. Sensory neuron carries nerve impulses toward the spinal cord. 3. Spinal cord interneurons relay signals to motor neurons. 4. Motor neuron carries signals to arm muscles. 5. Muscles contract and the hand withdraws.

Why can a protective withdrawal reflex begin before a person consciously experiences pain?

Because the spinal cord can organise and execute a rapid protective response locally before the sensory information travels to the brain for conscious processing.

How are neurotransmitters classified, and what are examples of each class?

They can be classified into small-molecule neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, and dopamine) and neuropeptides (e.g., endorphins, which are peptide-based chemical messengers).

What physiological and psychological processes are regulated by dopamine, serotonin, and adrenaline?

Dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, movement, and learning; serotonin in mood, sleep, and appetite regulation; and adrenaline (epinephrine) in arousal and stress-related responses.

What processes are regulated by GABA, glutamate, and endorphins?

GABA mediates major inhibitory signalling in the brain; glutamate mediates major excitatory signalling, learning, and memory; and endorphins modulate pain- and pleasure-related processes.

What opposing views did Plato and Aristotle hold regarding the brain and behaviour?

Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) associated reasoning with the brain and related behaviour and emotion to the soul. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) argued that the heart was central to sensation and thought, believing the brain functioned as a cooling mechanism.

What were the historical contributions of Herophilus and Galen to biopsychology?

Herophilus (c. 335–280 BCE) made early anatomical observations of the brain and nervous system. Galen (c. 129–216 CE) observed cranial nerves and formulated influential theories about brain function and the cerebral ventricles.

What contributions did René Descartes, Luigi Galvani, and Hermann von Helmholtz make to neuroscience?

Descartes (1596–1650) proposed mind–body dualism, identified the pineal gland as their interactive site, and described reflexes. Galvani (1737–1798) discovered electrical activity in nerve and muscle function using frog legs. Helmholtz (1821–1894) measured the conduction speed of nerve impulses.

What were the scientific contributions of Paul Broca, Camillo Golgi, and Santiago Ramón y Cajal?

Broca (1824–1880) linked specific brain damage to speech production impairments, supporting localisation of function. Golgi (1843–1926) and Cajal (1852–1934) made foundational contributions to understanding nervous system structure and neurons despite holding different organisational models.

What is the primary technical distinction between MRI and fMRI in brain imaging?

MRI primarily visualises anatomical brain structure, whereas fMRI estimates changes associated with functional brain activity, commonly via blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signals.

What does brain–computer and neurotechnology research investigate?

It investigates technologies that can measure or interact with neural activity, including systems that translate specific brain signals into device commands.