Psychology Midterm 2 Chapters 6, 7, 8, 10, 11

What is an open-ended question in surveys and observations?

A question that allows respondents to express their thoughts in their own words.

What does a forced-choice question require respondents to do?

Pick an answer from a limited set of options.

How does a Likert scale work?

Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement.

What is a semantic differential scale used for?

To rate a concept between two opposite adjectives.

What is a leading question?

A question that suggests a particular answer.

Define a double-barreled question.

A question that asks about two different topics in one single question.

What is negatively worded question?

A question that uses confusing negative terms.

How can question order affect survey results?

Earlier questions can influence how later answers are given.

What is a response set in surveys?

When a respondent provides the same answer repeatedly.

What does acquiescence refer to in survey responses?

The tendency to always agree with statements.

What is the meaning of fence sitting in survey responses?

Choosing a neutral response consistently.

What is social desirability bias?

Answering questions in a way that makes a person look good.

What is introspection?

Looking at one's own thoughts and feelings.

What are memory problems in surveys?

When respondents misremember information.

What is observer bias?

When an observer's expectations influence their recording of data.

What is the observer effect/reactivity?

When people alter their behavior because they are being watched.

What is Clever Hans known for?

A horse that appeared to understand human cues.

What is a masked design in research?

A study design where participants are unaware of the condition or hypothesis.

What is a population in the context of sampling?

The entire group of individuals you want to study.

What is a sample in research?

The actual group of individuals studied.

Define a census.

A study that covers everyone in the population.

What does it mean for a sample to be representative?

It accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

What is a biased sample?

A sample that does not fairly represent the population.

How does probability sampling work?

Every individual has a known chance of being selected.

What is simple random sampling?

Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

What is systematic sampling?

Selecting every nth person from a list.

Define cluster sampling.

Selecting random groups from the population.

What is stratified random sampling?

Randomly selecting individuals from predefined categories.

What does multistage sampling entail?

Choosing participants in multiple steps.

What is oversampling?

Selecting extra individuals from a minority group.

What is convenience sampling?

Choosing individuals who are easiest to reach.

What is self-selection in sampling?

When participants choose to participate on their own.

What is purposive sampling?

When the researcher selects specific individuals for the study.

What does snowball sampling involve?

Current participants recruit future participants.

Define quota sampling.

Filling a predetermined number of participants from specific groups.

What defines a positive correlation?

Both variables increase together.

Define a negative correlation.

One variable increases while the other decreases.

What does zero correlation indicate?

No linear relationship between the variables.

What is a correlation coefficient?

A number that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.

What does effect size refer to?

The magnitude of the relationship or effect.

What is statistical significance?

Evidence that suggests the null hypothesis can be rejected.

What is an outlier in data?

An unusual score that differs significantly from others.

What does restriction of range mean in correlation studies?

Not having enough variety in data to show a true relationship.

What is a curvilinear relationship?

A relationship that forms a curve when graphed.

What is the directionality problem in correlation?

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other.

What is the third-variable problem?

A different variable may explain the relationship between two variables.

Define spurious association.

A misleading relationship due to the presence of a third variable.

What is covariance in experiments?

The relationship between two variables.

What does temporal precedence mean?

The cause must occur before the effect.

What is internal validity?

The extent to which other explanations are ruled out.

Define an independent variable (IV).

The variable that is manipulated.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The variable that is measured.

What is a control variable?

Variables that remain constant throughout the experiment.

What distinguishes a treatment group?

The group that receives the treatment.

What is a control group used for?

To serve as a comparison to the treatment group.

What is a placebo group?

A group that receives an inactive treatment.

What is independent-groups design?

Different people are assigned to different conditions.

What does within-groups design refer to?

The same people are measured across conditions.

What is a posttest-only design?

Participants are tested after the treatment.

What is a pretest-posttest design?

Participants are tested before and after treatment.

What does concurrent-measures design involve?

Comparing conditions at the same time.

Define repeated-measures design.

The same participants are measured across multiple conditions.

What does face validity indicate?

The measure appears to assess the intended construct.

What is a manipulation check?

A test to ensure the treatment is working as intended.

What is a pilot study?

A small preliminary study to test procedures.

What does external validity refer to?

The extent to which results can be generalized to other settings.

What is a confound?

An alternative explanation for results.

What is a design confound?

A variable that systematically changes along with the IV.

Define systematic variability.

When differences follow a predictable pattern.

What is unsystematic variability?

Random differences that do not follow a pattern.

What is a selection effect?

Groups differ prior to treatment.

What is an order effect in experiments?

The order in which treatments are presented affects results.

What is a practice effect?

Participants improve due to practice.

What is a fatigue effect?

Participants get tired over time.

What does carryover effect mean?

Earlier conditions affect responses to later conditions.

What is random assignment?

Participants are randomly placed into different groups.

What does matched groups refer to?

Participants are paired based on similarities.

Define full counterbalancing.

All possible orders of conditions are used.

What is partial counterbalancing?

Some orders of conditions are used.

What is a Latin square in experimental design?

A method to balance conditions across different positions.

What is randomized counterbalancing?

Condition orders are randomly assigned.

What does maturation refer to in experiments?

Natural changes in participants over time.

What is history in research terms?

An outside event influences study results.

What is regression to the mean?

Extremes in data move toward the average over time.

What does attrition mean in a study?

Participants dropping out of the study.

How does testing affect results?

Taking a test can influence future test results.

What is instrumentation in research?

Changes in measurement methods over time.

What does a null result indicate?

No clear effect was found in the study.

What is weak manipulation?

When the treatment effects are too weak to be noticed.

What is an insensitive measure?

A test that cannot effectively detect an effect.

Define ceiling effect in test scores.

Scores are too high to detect differences.

What is a floor effect?

Scores are too low to detect differences.

What does reverse design confound imply?

Another factor hides the real effect of the treatment.

Define measurement error.

Inaccuracies in measurement.

What does individual differences refer to?

Variability in responses among individuals.

How does situation noise affect study results?

External distractions influence participant responses.